Microwave diagnostics of energetic electrons in flares

Electrons accelerated during solar flares are revealed by their electromagnetic radiation in different spectral ranges, emitted at different heights in the solar atmosphere. The observational analysis points to a common and continuous injection of particles. Based on this result, a quantitative investigation of the hard X-ray and microwave emissions observed during the 29 June, 1980 flare at 11: 40 UT has been performed. This is the first modelisation that takes into account both the inhomogeneity of the microwave source region and the dynamical evolution of the electron population. First results of our model computations demonstrate that during the most energetic phase of the event both hard X-rays and microwaves are described by electron populations resulting from the same injection function, and that the total numbers of electrons required for both emissions are compatible. Account for the inhomogeneity of the microwave source is shown to be a necessary condition for the interpretation of observed spectra.Proceedings of the Workshop on Radio Continua during Solar Flares, held at Duino (Trieste), Italy, 27–31 May, 1985.     

Relative timing of hard X-rays and radio emissions during the different phases of solar flares: Consequences for the electron acceleration

Observations relevant to the relative timing of hard X-ray, microwave and lower frequency radio bursts in different phases of flare are reviewed. It is shown that such timing comparisons give important information concerning the electron acceleration/injection process, the magnetic field topology at the acceleration site and the flare development itself. In particular it is shown that acceleration begins before the flash phase of flares and that it keeps going on continuously during the entire duration of a flare. Moreover, despite their wide separation in altitude, hard X-ray, microwave and lower frequency sources appear to arise from a common injection of electrons going on continuously through the different phases of flare. In situ acceleration by shock waves giving rise to type II radio emission is briefly discussed. As an alternative interactions between small and large scale magnetic structures is proposed.Proceedings of the Workshop on Radio Continua during Solar Flares, held at Duino (Trieste), Italy, 27–31 May, 1985.     

Energetic Particle Acceleration and Propagation in Strong CME-Less Flares

Flares and coronal mass ejections (CMEs) contribute to the acceleration and propagation of solar energetic particles (SEP) detected in the interplanetary space, but the exact roles of these phenomena are yet to be understood. We examine two types of energetic particle tracers related with 15 CME-less flares that emit bright soft X-ray bursts (GOES X class): radio emission of flare-accelerated electrons and in situ measurements of energetic electrons and protons near 1 AU. The CME-less flares are found to be vigorous accelerators of microwave-emitting electrons, which remain confined in low coronal structures. This is shown by unusually steep low-frequency microwave spectra and by lack of radio emission from the middle and high corona, including dm?–?m wave type IV continua and metre-to-hectometre type III bursts. The confinement of the particles accelerated in CME-less flares agrees with the magnetic field configuration of these events inferred by others. Two events produced isolated metric type II bursts revealing coronal shock waves. None of the seven flares in the western hemisphere was followed by enhanced particle fluxes in the GOES detectors, but one, which was accompanied by a type II burst, caused a weak SEP event detected at SoHO and ACE. Three of the CME-less flares were followed within some hours by SEP-associated flares from the same active region. These SEP-producing events were clearly distinct from the CME-less ones by their association with fast and broad CMEs, dm?–?m wave radio emission, and intense DH type III bursts. We conclude that radio emission at decimetre and longer waves is a reliable indication that flare-accelerated particles have access to the high corona and interplanetary space. The absence of such emission can be used as a signal that no SEP event is to be expected despite the occurrence of a strong soft X-ray burst.     

Joint Measurements of Flare Flux Densities at 210 – 212 GHz by Two Different Radio Telescopes

Multiple-beam observations of solar flares at submillimeter wavelengths need detection with at least four beams to derive the flux density $\mbox{$F$} $ of the emitting source, its size, and centroid position. When this condition is not fulfilled, the assumptions on the location and/or size of the emitting source have to be made in order to compute $\mbox{$F$}$ . Otherwise, only a flux density range $\mbox{$\Delta F$}$ can be estimated. We report on simultaneous flare observations at 212 and 210 GHz obtained by the Solar Submillimeter Telescope (SST) and the Bernese Multibeam Radiometer for Kosma (BEMRAK), respectively, during two solar events on 28 October 2003. For both events, BEMRAK utilized four beam information to calculate the source flux density F ₂₁₀, its size and position. On the other hand, the SST observed the events with only one beam, at low solar elevation angles and during high atmospheric attenuation. Therefore, because of these poor observing conditions at 212 GHz, only a flux density range ΔF ₂₁₂ could be estimated. The results show that ΔF ₂₁₂ is within a factor of 2.5 of the flux density F ₂₁₀. This factor can be significantly reduced (e.g. 1.4 for one of the studied events) by an appropriate choice of the 212 GHz source position using flare observations at other wavelengths. By adopting the position and size of the 210 GHz source measured by BEMRAK, the flux density at 212 GHz, F _212b, is comparable to F ₂₁₀ within the uncertainties, as expected. Therefore our findings indicate that even during poor observing conditions, the SST can provide an acceptable estimate of the flux density at 212 GHz. This is a remarkable fact since the SST and BEMRAK use quite different procedures for calibration and flux density determination. We also show that the necessary assumptions made on the size of the emitting source at 212 GHz in order to estimate its flux density are not critical, and therefore do not affect the conclusions of previous studies at this frequency.     

Radio Emission of Flares and Coronal Mass Ejections

We review recent progress on our understanding of radio emission from solar flares and coronal mass ejections (CMEs) with emphasis on those aspects of the subject that help us address questions about energy release and its properties, the configuration of flare?–?CME source regions, coronal shocks, particle acceleration and transport, and the origin of solar energetic particle (SEP) events. Radio emission from electron beams can provide information about the electron acceleration process, the location of injection of electrons in the corona, and the properties of the ambient coronal structures. Mildly relativistic electrons gyrating in the magnetic fields of flaring loops produce radio emission via the gyrosynchrotron mechanism, which provides constraints on the magnetic field and the properties of energetic electrons. CME detection at radio wavelengths tracks the eruption from its early phase and reveals the participation of a multitude of loops of widely differing scale. Both flares and CMEs can ignite shock waves and radio observations offer the most robust tool to study them. The incorporation of radio data into the study of SEP events reveals that a clear-cut distinction between flare-related and CME-related SEP events is difficult to establish.     

The orientation of pre-transient coronal magnetic fields

Loop-like white light coronal transients are generally believed to be nearly planar sheets which are thin compared to the loop extent; however, this picture may be questioned since virtually no observations (of the more than 100 transient events observed during 1973–74 Skylab period) show such loops edge-on. From the group of transient events studied by Munro etal. (1979) for which definite surface associations exist, we find loop transients are strongly correlated with filament regions where the filament axis was oriented north-south. From direct soft X-ray observations of an expanding arch, the possible identification of the soft X-ray signature of footpoints of transient loops, and monochramatic observations of low coronal loops, we infer that loop-like coronal transients have their origin in low-lying coronal loops nearly co-planar with the north-south aligned filament axis. The situation with respect to non-loop events is less clear; such events apparently often arise from more complex filament geometries. Possible reasons for the preference of transients to arise from north-south filament-oriented regions are discussed.The National Center for Atmospheric Research is sponsored by the National Science Foundation.     

Association between gradual hard X-Ray emission and metric continua during large flares

X-ray radiation is used to study coronal phenomena in conjunction with meter wave observations during some large solar flares. It is found that metric flare continua and moving type IV bursts are associated with gradual and long lasting (a few tens of minutes) microwave and hard X-ray emissions. The detailed temporal analysis reveals that although metric and hard X-ray sources are located at very different heights, both kinds of emission result from a common and continuous/repetitive injection of electrons in the corona. The late part of the metric event (stationary type IV burst) is only associated with soft X-ray radiation. This indicates that the mean energy of the radiating electrons is lower during stationary type IV bursts than during the earlier parts of the event.     

Solar flares at submillimeter wavelengths

We discuss the implications of the first systematic observations of solar flares at submillimeter wavelengths, defined here as observing wavelengths shorter than 3 mm (frequencies higher than 0.1 THz). The events observed thus far show that this wave band requires a new understanding of high-energy processes in solar flares. Several events, including observations from two different observatories, show during the impulsive phase of the flare a spectral component with a positive (increasing) slope at the highest observable frequencies (up to 405 GHz). To emphasize the increasing spectra and the possibility that these events could be even more prominent in the THz range, we term this spectral feature a “THz component”. Here we review the data and methods, and critically assess the observational evidence for such distinct component(s). This evidence is convincing. We also review the several proposed explanations for these feature(s), which have been reported in three distinct flare phases. These data contain important clues to flare development and particle acceleration as a whole, but many of the theoretical issues remain open. We generally have lacked systematic observations in the millimeter-wave to far-infrared range that are needed to complete our picture of these events, and encourage observations with new facilities.     

Particle Acceleration and Propagation in Strong Flares without Major Solar Energetic Particle Events

Solar energetic particles (SEPs) detected in space are statistically associated with flares and coronal mass ejections (CMEs). But it is not clear how these processes actually contribute to the acceleration and transport of the particles. The present work addresses the question why flares accompanied by intense soft X-ray bursts may not produce SEPs detected by observations with the GOES spacecraft. We consider all X-class X-ray bursts between 1996 and 2006 from the western solar hemisphere. 21 out of 69 have no signature in GOES proton intensities above 10 MeV, despite being significant accelerators of electrons, as shown by their radio emission at cm wavelengths. The majority (11/20) has no type III radio bursts from electron beams escaping towards interplanetary space during the impulsive flare phase. Together with other radio properties, this indicates that the electrons accelerated during the impulsive flare phase remain confined in the low corona. This occurs in flares with and without a CME. Although GOES saw no protons above 10 MeV at geosynchronous orbit, energetic particles were detected in some (4/11) confined events at Lagrangian point L1 aboard ACE or SoHO. These events have, besides the confined microwave emission, dm-m wave type II and type IV bursts indicating an independent accelerator in the corona. Three of them are accompanied by CMEs. We conclude that the principal reason why major solar flares in the western hemisphere are not associated with SEPs is the confinement of particles accelerated in the impulsive phase. A coronal shock wave or the restructuring of the magnetically stressed corona, indicated by the type II and IV bursts, can explain the detection of SEPs when flare-accelerated particles do not reach open magnetic field lines. But the mere presence of these radio signatures, especially of a metric type II burst, is not a sufficient condition for a major SEP event.