Future changes of the atmospheric composition and the impact of climate change

The development of the future atmospheric chemical composition is investigated with respect to NO _y and O₃ by means of the off‐line coupled dynamic‐chemical general circulation model ECHAM3/CHEM. Two time slice experiments have been performed for the years 1992 and 2015, which include changes in sea surface temperatures, greenhouse gas concentrations, emissions of CFCs, NO _x and other species, i.e., the 2015 simulation accounts for changes in chemically relevant emissions and for a climate change and its impact on air chemistry. The 2015 simulation clearly shows a global increase in ozone except for large areas of the lower stratosphere, where no significant changes or even decreases in the ozone concentration are found. For a better understanding of the importance of (A) emissions like NO _x and CFCs, (B) future changes of air temperature and water vapour concentration, and (C) other dynamical parameters, like precipitation and changes in the circulation, diabatic circulation, stratosphere‐troposphere‐exchange, the simulation of the future atmosphere has been performed stepwise. This method requires a climate‐chemistry model without interactive coupling of chemical species. Model results show that the direct effect of emissions (A) plays a major rôle for the composition of the future atmosphere, but they also clearly show that climate change (B and C) has a significant impact and strongly reduces the NO _y and ozone concentration in the lower stratosphere.     

Depths of Partial Crystallization of H2O-bearing MORB: Phase Equilibria Simulations of Basalts at the MAR near Ascension Island (7 11{degrees}S)

Phase equilibria simulations were performed on naturally quenchedbasaltic glasses to determine crystallization conditions priorto eruption of magmas at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (MAR) east ofAscension Island (7–11°S). The results indicate thatmid-ocean ridge basalt (MORB) magmas beneath different segmentsof the MAR have crystallized over a wide range of pressures(100–900 MPa). However, each segment seems to have a specificcrystallization history. Nearly isobaric crystallization conditions(100–300 MPa) were obtained for the geochemically enrichedMORB magmas of the central segments, whereas normal (N)-MORBmagmas of the bounding segments are characterized by polybariccrystallization conditions (200–900 MPa). In addition,our results demonstrate close to anhydrous crystallization conditionsof N-MORBs, whereas geochemically enriched MORBs were successfullymodeled in the presence of 0·4–1 wt% H₂O in theparental melts. These estimates are in agreement with direct(Fourier transform IR) measurements of H₂O abundances in basalticglasses and melt inclusions for selected samples. Water contentsdetermined in the parental melts are in the range 0·04–0·09and 0·30–0·55 wt% H₂O for depleted and enrichedMORBs, respectively. Our results are in general agreement (within±200 MPa) with previous approaches used to evaluate pressureestimates in MORB. However, the determination of pre-eruptiveconditions of MORBs, including temperature and water contentin addition to pressure, requires the improvement of magma crystallizationmodels to simulate liquid lines of descent in the presence ofsmall amounts of water. KEY WORDS: MORB; Mid-Atlantic Ridge; depth of crystallization; water abundances; phase equilibria calculations; cotectic crystallization; pressure estimates; polybaric fractionation     

Particulate barium fluxes and export production in the northwestern Mediterranean

Biogenic barium, mostly in the barite (BaSO₄) form, has been proposed as a tracer for export production in the ocean. Here we report on biogenic barium (Ba_xs) and particulate organic carbon (POC) fluxes from sediment traps deployed at the DYFAMED site in the Northwestern Mediterranean Sea. Ba_xs fluxes display average values of 37 ± 45 and 50 ± 58 μg/m²/d at 200 and 1000 m respectively, and are linearly correlated to POC fluxes (mean values of 7.9 ± 9.3 and 6.8 ± 6.8 mg C/m²/d at 200 and 1000 m). Export production estimates, calculated using published Ba_xs- or POC-based algorithms, all fall below or close to the lower limit of potential export values proposed in the literature. This work clearly demonstrates the usefulness of Ba_xs as a tracer of oceanic export production in the Northwestern Mediterranean Sea. However, development of a quantitative export production proxy requires a clear understanding of the underlying cause(s) for the observed spatial variations in the relationship between Ba_xs and POC fluxes. The present study confirms that the processes leading to barite formation differ between margin and open-ocean sites and probably account for much of the regional variability in the POC/Ba_xs ratio.     

The Loyalty—New Hebrides Arc collision: Effects on the Loyalty Ridge and basin system,Southwest Pacific (first results of the ZoNéCo programme)

The ZoNéCo 1 and 2 cruises of Ifremer's Research Vessel L'Atalante, collected new swath bathymetry and geophysical data over the southern and northern segments of the basins and ridges forming the Loyalty system. Between the two surveyed areas, previous studies found evidence for the resistance of the Loyalty Ridge to subduction beneath the New Hebrides trench near 22°S–169°E. On the subducted plate, except for seismicity related to the downbending of the Australian plate, recorded shallow seismicity is sparse within the Loyalty system (Ridge and Basin) where reliable focal mechanism solutions are almost absent.Swath bathymetry, seismic reflection and magnetic data acquired during the ZoNéCo 1 and 2 cruises revealed a transverse asymmetric morphology in the Loyalty system, and an along-strike horst and graben structure on the discontinuous Loyalty Ridge. South of 23°50S and at 20°S, the two WSW-ENE-trending fault systems, respectively, sinistral and dextral, that crosscut the southern and northern segments of the Loyalty system, are interpreted as due to the early effects of collision with the New Hebrides Arc. A NNW-SSE trend, evident along the whole Loyalty system and on the island of New Caledonia, is interpreted as an inherited structural trend that may have been reactivated through flexure of the Australian lithospheric plate at the subduction zone.Overall then, the morphology, structure and evolution of the southern and northern segments of the Loyalty system probably result from the combined effects of the Australian plate lithospheric bulge, the active Loyalty-New Hebrides collision and the overthrust of the New Caledonian ophiolite.     

Use of unit response functions for management of regional multilayered aquifers: application to the North Aquitaine Tertiary system (France)

Although there are many numerical applications used in aquifer management, few methodologies seem to be sufficiently adapted to provide solutions for regional-scale problems. Their applications for multilayered aquifers are also too limited. A new groundwater management tool adapted to such large physical systems has been developed, using the unit response function (URF) approach. This tool is based on the link between a numerical groundwater flow model and a mathematical optimisation tool. Pre- and post processing are based on a geographical information system (GIS). The developed tool has been applied to a real management case—the regional Aquitaine multilayered aquifer (France). A representative hydrodynamic model was built using MODFLOW 2000 code. First tests show that the linearity condition needed for the application of URF methodology is respected despite the high complexity of the system. Two management scenarios were tested. Optimal solutions thus obtained allow for viable exploitation alternatives to be proposed, which integrate complex environmental constraints.

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Résumé Malgré un nombre important d’applications existant dans le domaine de la gestion des aquifères, peu de méthodologies semblent adaptées pour proposer des solutions à des problèmes réels de dimension régionale. Leurs application pour des systèmes multicouches sont souvent trop limitées. Un outil de gestion adapté à ces systèmes de large taille a été développé, basé sur la théorie des Fonctions de Réponses Unitaires (FRU). Cet outil est basé sur le couplage d’un modèle numérique d’écoulement et d’un code d’optimisation mathématique. Les entrées et sorties du modèle sont réalisées à l’aide d’un Système d’Information Géographique (SIG). L’outil développé est appliqué à un cas de gestion réel—le système aquifère régional multicouche aquitain (France). Un modèle hydrodynamique représentatif a été construit, basé sur le code MODFLOW 2000. Les premiers tests montrent que les conditions de linéarité nécessaires à l’application de la méthode FRU sont respectées, malgré l’importante complexité du système. Deux scénarii de gestion sont testés. Les solutions optimales ainsi obtenues permettent de proposer des solutions d’exploitation alternatives viables, intégrant des contraintes environnementales complexes.

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Resumen Aunque hay muchas aplicaciones numéricas usadas en la gestión de acuíferos, unas pocas metodologías parecen estar adaptadas suficientemente para dar las soluciones a los problemas de escala regional. También son limitadas sus aplicaciones para los acuíferos multicapa. Se ha desarrollado una nueva herramienta para el manejo del agua subterránea, adaptada a tales sistemas físicos grandes, usando el avance de la Función de Respuesta Unitaria (URF). Esta herramienta se basa en la combinación entre un modelo numérico de flujo de agua subterránea y una herramienta de optimización matemática. El pre-proceso y el post-proceso se basan en un Sistema de Información Geográfico (GIS). La herramienta desarrollada se ha aplicado a un caso real de manejo en el acuífero regional multicapa de Aquitania (Francia). Se construyó un modelo hidrodinámico representativo, que usó el código MODFLOW 2000. Las primeras pruebas muestran que la condición de linearidad, necesaria para la aplicación de la metodología URF, se respeta a pesar de la complejidad alta del sistema. Se probaron dos escenarios de manejo. Las soluciones óptimas así obtenidas permiten la proyección de alternativas viables de explotación, las cuales integran restricciones medioambientales complejas.

     

Geochemistry and Intrusive History of the Ashland Pluton, Klamath Mountains, California and Oregon

The Ashland pluton is a calc-alkaline plutonic complex thatintruded the western Paleozoic and Triassic belt of the KlamathMountains in late Middle Jurassic time. The pluton comprisesa series of compositionally distinct magma pulses. The oldestrocks are hornblende gabbro and two-pyroxene quartz gabbro withinitial ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr = 0{dot}7044, ¹⁸O = 8{dot}7%, and REE patternswith chondrite normalized La/Lu = 7. These units were followedby a suite of tonalitic rocks (La_N/Lu_N = 7) and then by a suiteof K₂O- and P₂O₅ rocks of quartz monzodioritic affinity (La_N/Lu_N= 13–21; La_N/Sm_N = 2{dot}4–3{dot}) The quartz monzodioriticrocks were then intruded by biotite granodiorite and granitewith lower REE abundances but more fractionated LREE(La_N/Lu_N= 13–19; La_N/Sm_N = 4{dot}3–6 and they, in turn,were host to dikes and bosses of hornblende diorite. The latestintrusive activity consisted of aplitic and granitic dikes.Combined phase equilibria and mineral composition data, indicateemplacement conditions of approximately P_total = 2{dot}3kb,P_H2O between 1{dot}5 and 2{dot}2 kb, and f_O2 between the nickel-nickeloxide and hematite-magnetite buffers. Successive pulses of magma display increasing SiO₂ togetherwith increasing ¹⁸O and decreasing initial ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr. The isotopicdata are consistent with either (1) combined fractional crystallizationof andesitic magma and concurrent assimilation of crustal materialcharacterized by low Sr₁ and high (¹⁸O or, more probably, (2)a series of partial melting events in which sources were successivelyless radiogenic but richer in ¹⁸O Each intrusive stage displaysevidence for some degree of crystal accumulation and/or fractionalcrystallization but neither process adequately accounts fortheir compositional differences. Consequently, each stage appearsto represent a distinct partial melting or assimilation event. The P₂O₅-rich nature of the quartz monzodiorite suite suggestsaccumulation of apatite. However, the suite contains abundantmafic microgranitoid enclaves and most apatite in the suiteis acicular. These observations suggest that magma mixing affectedthe compositional variation of the quartz monzodiorite suite.Mass balance calculations are consistent with a simple mixingprocess in which P₂O₅-rich alkalic basalt magma (representedby the mafic microgranitoid enclaves) was combined with a crystal-poorfelsic magma (represented by the tonalite suite), yielding aquartz monzodioritic magma that then underwent differentiationby crystal fractionation and accumulation.     

Solid-Fluid Equilibria in the System KAlSi3O8-NaAlSi3O8-Al2SiO5-SiO2-H2O-HCl

Activity diagrams in the system KAlSi₃O₈-NaAlSi₃O₈-Al₂SiO₅-SiO₂-H₂O-HClhave been calculated in terms of a_K+/a_H+ and a_N+/a_H+ from existingexperimental data. They show the effect of temperature, pressure,and a_H2O on the stability fields of the alkali feldspars, micas,and aluminium silicate. These activity diagrams are useful in revealing the bufferingcapacity of mineral assemblages and the chemical potential gradientsestablished by changes in T, P, a_H2O, and mineral assemblage.An analysis of mineral paragenesis in terms of these diagramssuggests that mosaic equilibrium, allowing limited metasomatismand internal buffering of chemical potentials, best describemetamorphic systems. Thus the dehydration reaction: muscovite+quartz=K-feldspar+Al₂SiO₅+H₂O which is most important in closed systems, probably fails todescribe in detail the mechanism of natural muscovite decomposition.Rather the decomposition of muscovite is more likely representedby ionic reactions. The replacement of muscovite by feldspar: muscovite+6 SiO₂+2 K⁺=3 K-feldspar+2 H⁺ muscovite+6 SiO₂+3 Na⁺=3 Albite+K⁺+2 H⁺ is favored at high temperature and low pressure, and may accountfor the crystallization of some feldspars in metamorphic rocks.The reaction involving aluminium silicate replacement of muscovite: 2 muscovite+2 H⁺=3 Al₂SiO₅+3 SiO₂+3 H₂O+2 K⁺ is favored at high temperature and pressure and low a_H2O, andcould contribute to the development of the aluminium silicates.It is concluded that both activity diagrams and AKNa projectionsshould be used together to more completely evaluate mineralparagenesis in terms of mosaic equilibria.