Landslides triggered by the 2016 Mj 7.3 Kumamoto,Japan, earthquake

The aim of this study is to establish a detailed and complete inventory of the landslides triggered by the Mj 7.3 (Mw 7.0) Kumamoto, Japan, earthquake sequence of 15 April 2016 (16 April in JST). Based on high-resolution (0.5–2 m) optical satellite images, we delineated 3,467 individual landslides triggered by the earthquake, occupying an area of about 6.9 km². Then they were validated by aerial photographs with very high-resolution (better than 0.5 m) and oblique field photos. Of them, 3,460 landslides are distributed in an elliptical area about 6000 km², with a NE-SW directed 120-km-long long axis and a 60-km-long NW-SE trending short axis. Most of the landslides are shallow, disrupted falls and slides, with a few flow-type slides and rock and soil avalanches. The analysis of correlation between the landslides and several control factors shows the areas of elevation 1000–1200 m, stratum of Q₃-Hvf, seismic intensity VIII and VIII+, and peak ground acceleration (PGA) 0.4–0.6 g register the highest landslide abundance. This study also discussed the relationship between the spatial pattern of the landslides and the seismotectonic structure featured by a strike-slip fault with a normal component and the volcanism in the study area.     

Microbial responses using denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis to oil and chemical dispersant in enclosed ecosystems

Microbial responses to the addition of oil with or without a chemical dispersant were examined in mesocosm and microcosm experiments by using denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis of bacterial ribosomal DNA and direct cell counting. When a water-soluble fraction of oil was added to seawater, increases in cell density were observed in the first 24h, followed by a decrease in abundance and a change in bacterial species composition. After addition of an oil-dispersant mixture, increases in cell density and changes in community structure coincided, and the amount of bacteria remained high. These phenomena also occurred in response to addition of only dispersant. Our results suggest that the chemical dispersant may be used as a nutrient source by some bacterial groups and may directly or indirectly prevent the growth of other bacterial groups.     

Three-dimensional distributions of sewage markers in Tokyo Bay water--fluorescent whitening agents (FWAs)

Three-dimensional distributions of fluorescent whitening agents (FWAs: more specifically, DSBP and DAS1), which are sewage-derived water-soluble markers, were observed in Tokyo Bay water through multi-layer sampling of water at 20 locations. In summer, FWAs predominated in the surface layers, with trace but significant concentration of FWAs in bottom water due to stratification of seawater. In winter, on the other hand, FWAs were extensively mixed into the bottom layers because of the vertical mixing of seawater. In the surface layer, FWA concentrations and the DSBP/DAS1 ratio (the concentration ratio of DSBP to DAS1) were lower in summer than in winter, suggesting more efficient photodegradation of FWAs in euphotic zones during the summer due to stronger solar radiation. Horizontally, FWAs were widely distributed over the surface layer of Tokyo Bay. Surface water with DSBP concentrations above 50ng/L, corresponding to <200 times dilution of sewage effluent, was found to have spread up to 10km from the coastline. In addition, an offshore decline in FWA concentrations was observed, showing a half-distance of 10-20km. The decrease was caused by dilution by seawater of fresh water containing FWAs. The eastern part of the bay was different with respect to surface layers, with higher concentrations seen in northeastern parts. Furthermore, dispersion of combined sewer overflow (CSO)-derived water mass was observed in Tokyo Bay after heavy rain.     

Organic micropollutants in marine plastics debris from the open ocean and remote and urban beaches

To understand the spatial variation in concentrations and compositions of organic micropollutants in marine plastic debris and their sources, we analyzed plastic fragments (∼10 mm) from the open ocean and from remote and urban beaches. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane and its metabolites (DDTs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), alkylphenols and bisphenol A were detected in the fragments at concentrations from 1 to 10,000 ng/g. Concentrations showed large piece-to-piece variability. Hydrophobic organic compounds such as PCBs and PAHs were sorbed from seawater to the plastic fragments. PCBs are most probably derived from legacy pollution. PAHs showed a petrogenic signature, suggesting the sorption of PAHs from oil slicks. Nonylphenol, bisphenol A, and PBDEs came mainly from additives and were detected at high concentrations in some fragments both from remote and urban beaches and the open ocean.     

Physical and chemical effects of ingested plastic debris on short-tailed shearwaters, Puffinus tenuirostris, in the North Pacific Ocean

We investigated the plastics ingested by short-tailed shearwaters, Puffinus tenuirostris, that were accidentally caught during experimental fishing in the North Pacific Ocean in 2003 and 2005. The mean mass of plastics found in the stomach was 0.23 g per bird (n = 99). Plastic mass did not correlate with body weight. Total PCB (sum of 24 congeners) concentrations in the abdominal adipose tissue of 12 birds ranged from 45 to 529 ng/g-lipid. Although total PCBs or higher-chlorinated congeners, the mass of ingested plastic correlated positively with concentrations of lower-chlorinated congeners. The effects of toxic chemicals present in plastic debris on bird physiology should be investigated.     

余震密度随距离的衰减不代表动态应力触发过程

分辨多数余震和后续主震是由静态应力触发(Stein,1999;Todaetal,2005;Parsons,2002)还是动态应力触发(Hilletal,1993;kilb,2003;Brodsky and Prejean,2005;Gomberg and Johnson,2005;Hill and Prejean,2007),对理解地震内在作用和预测地震危险性是有必要的(Freed,2005)。Felzer和Brodsky(2006)分析了2≤M<3和3≤M<4级主震后5min内余震的空间分布情况,发现距主震50km范围内M≥2余震具有特定的幂律衰减关系,且衰减曲线的斜率为-1.35。据此,他们认为余震随距离的衰减只能用动态触发来解释。基于上述假设我们进行了一系列的检验,但没有一个可通过检验,进而,本文中对这种衰减关系提出了另外一种解释。在距离2≤M<3主震300m以外的地方,主震前5min内的地震活动性衰减与主震后5min内的衰减没有显著的区别,表明主震对它静态触发区域以外的地方没有影响。表征余震基本特性的大森随时间衰减关系在距离主震10km以外的地方是不存在的。最后,发现在主震波前未到达之前的余震中发现了...     

Regionality of deep low-frequency earthquakes associated with subduction of the Philippine Sea plate along the Nankai Trough, southwest Japan

The Fukuoka District Meteorological Observatory recently logged three possible deep low-frequency earthquakes (LFEs) beneath eastern Kyushu, Japan, a region in which LFEs and low-frequency tremors have never before been identified. To assess these data, we analyzed band-pass filtered velocity seismograms and relocated LFEs and regular earthquakes using the double-difference method. The results strongly suggest that the three events were authentic LFEs, each at a depth of about 50 km. We also performed relocation analysis on LFEs recorded beneath the Kii Peninsula and found that these LFEs occurred near the northwest-dipping plate interface at depths of approximately 29–38 km. These results indicate that LFEs in southwest Japan occur near the upper surface of the subducting Philippine Sea (PHS) plate. To investigate the origin of regional differences in the occurrence frequency of LFEs in western Shikoku, the Kii Peninsula, and eastern Kyushu, we calculated temperature distributions associated with PHS plate subduction. Then, using the calculated thermal structures and a phase diagram of water dehydration for oceanic basalt, the water dehydration rate (wt.%/km), which was newly defined in this study, was determined to be 0.19, 0.12, and 0.08 in western Shikoku, the Kii Peninsula, and eastern Kyushu, respectively; that is, the region beneath eastern Kyushu has the lowest water dehydration rate value. Considering that the Kyushu–Palau Ridge that is subducting beneath eastern Kyushu is composed of tonalite, which is low in hydrous minerals, this finding suggests that the regionality may be related to the amount of water dehydration associated with subduction of the PHS plate and/or differences in LFE depths. Notable dehydration reactions take place beneath western Shikoku and the Kii Peninsula, where the depth ranges for dehydration estimated by thermal modeling agree well with those for the relocated LFEs. The temperature range in which LFEs occur in these regions is estimated to be 400–500 °C.     

Sources of sedimentary PAHs in tropical Asian waters: Differentiation between pyrogenic and petrogenic sources by alkyl homolog abundance

We collected surface sediment samples from 174 locations in India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos, and the Philippines and analyzed them for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and hopanes. PAHs were widely distributed in the sediments, with comparatively higher concentrations in urban areas (∑PAHs: ∼1000 to ∼100 000 ng/g-dry) than in rural areas (∼10 to ∼100 g-dry), indicating large sources of PAHs in urban areas. To distinguish petrogenic and pyrogenic sources of PAHs, we calculated the ratios of alkyl PAHs to parent PAHs: methylphenanthrenes to phenanthrene (MP/P), methylpyrenes + methylfluoranthenes to pyrene + fluoranthene (MPy/Py), and methylchrysenes + methylbenz[a]anthracenes to chrysene + benz[a]anthracene (MC/C). Analysis of source materials (crude oil, automobile exhaust, and coal and wood combustion products) gave thresholds of MP/P = 0.4, MPy/Py = 0.5, and MC/C = 1.0 for exclusive combustion origin. All the combustion product samples had the ratios of alkyl PAHs to parent PAHs below these threshold values. Contributions of petrogenic and pyrogenic sources to the sedimentary PAHs were uneven among the homologs: the phenanthrene series had a greater petrogenic contribution, whereas the chrysene series had a greater pyrogenic contribution. All the Indian sediments showed a strong pyrogenic signature with MP/P ≈ 0.5, MPy/Py ≈ 0.1, and MC/C ≈ 0.2, together with depletion of hopanes indicating intensive inputs of combustion products of coal and/or wood, probably due to the heavy dependence on these fuels as sources of energy. In contrast, sedimentary PAHs from all other tropical Asian cities were abundant in alkylated PAHs with MP/P ≈ 1-4, MPy/Py ≈ 0.3-1, and MC/C ≈ 0.2-1.0, suggesting a ubiquitous input of petrogenic PAHs. Petrogenic contributions to PAH homologs varied among the countries: largest in Malaysia whereas inferior in Laos. The higher abundance of alkylated PAHs together with constant hopane profiles suggests widespread inputs of automobile-derived petrogenic PAHs to Asian waters.     

Measurement of the sea surface emissivity

The sea surface emissivity in the infrared region is determined on the basis of data analyses. Net radiation, surface irradiance and other oceanographical and meteorological variables are measured throughout most of the year at the oceanographical observatory tower in Tanabe Bay, Japan. We have found that 0.984±0.004 is a reliable emissivity value from the night time data. Surface emission radiates not from the subsurface water but from the sea surface. The thermal skin layer on the sea surface, however, is disturbed and disappears under high wind speed over 5 m/s through the analyses of the radiation observation using the emissivity value of 0.984. Under low wind speed, the sea surface can be cooler or warmer than the subsurface due to overlying thermal conditions and the skin layer can be neutral as the transient process between them. By using an emissivity value of 0.984, the temperature difference between the sea surface temperature and the temperature determined from surface irradiance that has been reported in the satellite data analyses is found to be reduced by half.