Determination of Sr/Sr mass-dependent isotopic fractionation and radiogenic isotope variation of Sr/Sr in the Neoproterozoic Doushantuo Formation

We measured both mass-dependent isotope fractionation of δ⁸⁸Sr (⁸⁸Sr/⁸⁶Sr) and radiogenic isotopic variation of Sr (⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr) for the Neoproterozoic Doushantuo Formation that deposited as a cap carbonate immediately above the Marinoan-related Nantuo Tillite. The δ⁸⁸Sr and ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr compositions showed three remarkable characteristics: (1) high radiogenic ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr values and gradual decrease in the ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios, (2) anomalously low δ⁸⁸Sr values at the lower part cap carbonate, and (3) a clear correlation between ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr and δ⁸⁸Sr values. These isotopic signatures can be explained by assuming an extreme greenhouse condition after the Marinoan glaciation. Surface seawater, mixed with a large amount of freshwater from continental crusts with high ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr and lighter δ⁸⁸Sr ratios, was formed during the extreme global warming after the glacial event. High atmospheric CO₂ content caused sudden precipitation of cap carbonate from the surface seawater with high ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr and lighter δ⁸⁸Sr ratios. Subsequently, the mixing of the underlying seawater, with unradiogenic Sr isotope compositions and normal δ⁸⁸Sr ratios, probably caused gradual decrease of the ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios of the seawater and deposition of carbonate with normal δ⁸⁸Sr ratios. The combination of ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr and δ⁸⁸Sr isotope systematics gives us new insights on the surface evolution after the Snowball Earth.     

Primary Ore Mineral Assemblage and Fluid Inclusion Study of the Batu Hijau Porphyry Cu-Au Deposit, Sumbawa, Indonesia

Abstract. The Batu Hijau porphyry Cu‐Au deposit, Sumbawa Island, Indonesia, is associated with a tonalitic intrusive complex. The temperature‐pressure condition of mineralization at the Batu Hijau deposit is discussed on the basis of fluid inclusion microthermometry. Then, the initial Cu‐Fe sulfide mineral assemblage is discussed. Bornite and chalcopyrite are major copper ore minerals associated with quartz veinlets. The quartz veinlets have been classified into ‘A’ veinlets associated with bornite, digenite, chalcocite and chalcopyrite, ‘B’ veinlets having chalcopyrite bornite along vuggy center‐line, rare ‘C’ chalcopyrite‐quartz veinlets, and late ‘D’ veinlets consisting of massive pyrite and quartz (Clode et al., 1999). Copper and gold mineralization is associated with abundant ‘A’ quartz veinlets. Abundant fluid inclusions are found in veinlet quartz consisting mainly of gas‐rich inclusions and polyphase inclusions throughout the veinlet types. The hydrothermal activity occurred in temperature‐pressure conditions of aqueous fluid immiscibility into hypersaline brine and dilute vapor. The halite dissolution (Tm[halite]) and liquid‐vapor homogenization (Th) temperatures of the polyphase inclusions in veinlet quartz range from 270 to 472d?C and from 280 to 454d?C, respectively. The estimated salinity ranges from 36 to 47 wt% (NaCl equiv.). The apparent pressures lower than 300 bars are estimated to have been along the liquid‐vapor‐halite curve for the fluid inclusions having the Th lower than the Tm that trapped the brine saturated with halite, or at slightly higher pressure relative to liquid‐vapor‐halite curve for the fluid inclusions having the Th higher than the Tm that trapped the brine unsaturated with halite. The actual temperature and pressure during the hydrothermal activity at the Batu Hijau deposit are estimated to have been around 300d?C and 50 bars. At such temperature‐pressure conditions, the principal and initial Cu‐Fe sulfide mineral assemblages are thought to be chalcopyrite + bornite solid solution (bnss) for the chalcopyrite‐bearing assemblage, and chalcocite‐digenite solid solution and bnss for the chalcopyrite‐free assemblage.     

GDP and employment effects of policies to close the 2020 emissions gap

Four policies might close the gap between the global GHG emissions expected for 2020 on the basis of current (2013) policies and the reduced emissions that will be needed if the long-term global temperature increase can be kept below the 2 °C internationally agreed limit. The four policies are (1) specific energy efficiency measures, (2) closure of the least-efficient coal-fired power plants, (3) minimizing methane emissions from upstream oil and gas production, and (4) accelerating the (partial) phase-out of subsidies to fossil-fuel consumption. In this article we test the hypothesis of the International Energy Agency (IEA) that these policies will not result in a loss of gross domestic product (GDP) and we estimate their employment effects using the E3MG global macro-econometric model. Using a set of scenarios we assess each policy individually and then consider the outcomes if all four policies were implemented simultaneously. We find that the policies are insufficient to close the emissions gap, with an overall emission reduction that is 30% less than that found by the IEA. World GDP is 0.5% higher in 2020, with about 6 million net jobs created by 2020 and unemployment reduced.

Policy relevance

The gap between GHG emissions expected under the Copenhagen and Cancun Agreements and that needed for emissions trajectories to have a reasonable chance of reaching the 2 °C target requires additional policies if it is to be closed. This article uses a global simulation model E3MG to analyse a set of policies proposed by the IEA to close the gap and assesses their macroeconomic effects as well as their feasibility in closing the gap. It complements the IEA assessment by estimating the GDP and employment implications separately by the different policies year by year to 2020, by major industries, and by 21 world regions.     

Estimation of dynamic friction and movement history of large landslides

We performed seismic waveform inversions and numerical landslide simulations of deep-seated landslides in Japan to understand the dynamic evolution of friction of the landslides. By comparing the forces obtained from a numerical simulation to those resolved from seismic waveform inversion, the coefficient of friction during sliding was well-constrained between 0.3 and 0.4 for landslides with volumes of 2–8 ×10⁶ m³. We obtained similar coefficients of friction for landslides with similar scale and geology, and they are consistent with the empirical relationship between the volume and dynamic coefficient of friction obtained from the past studies. This hybrid method of the numerical simulation and seismic waveform inversion shows the possibility of reproducing or predicting the movement of a large-scale landslide. Our numerical simulation allows us to estimate the velocity distribution for each time step. The maximum velocity at the center of mass is 12–36 m/s and is proportional to the square root of the elevation change at the center of mass of the landslide body, which suggests that they can be estimated from the initial DEMs. About 20% of the total potential energy is transferred to the kinetic energy in our volume range. The combination of the seismic waveform inversion and the numerical simulation helps to obtain the well-constrained dynamic coefficients of friction and velocity distribution during sliding, which will be used in numerical models to estimate the hazard of potential landslides.     

Data‐driven taxonomy matching of asteroid and meteorite

The matching of asteroids and meteorites is a significant step toward a better understanding of the origin, structure, and history of the solar system. We propose a data‐driven approach for investigating common taxonomic structure between asteroids and meteorites; C‐, S‐, and V‐type for the former, and carbonaceous chondrite, ordinary chondrite, and howardite‐eucrite‐diogenite (HED) meteorite for the latter. In the numerical experiments, by checking whether the taxonomy information of meteorites improves classification for asteroid data, we examine the existence of common structure over the two domains. For this purpose, we compare the resultant accuracies of two clustering methods which are with/without the guidance of meteorite data. We observe that the guidance of meteorite taxonomy improves the accuracy for classifying asteroids, either with the reflectance spectra or major chemical compositions of meteorites. This fact serves as a piece of evidence that there is a common taxonomic structure and links between meteorites and asteroids, supporting a long‐standing hypothesis.     

Modelling the Shimokita deep coalbed biosphere over deep geological time: Starvation,stimulation, material balance and population models

Basin models can simulate geological, geochemical and geophysical processes and potentially also the deep biosphere, starting from a burial curve, assuming a thermal history and utilizing other experimentally obtained data. Here, we apply basin modelling techniques to model cell abundances within the deep coalbed biosphere off Shimokita Peninsula, Japan, drilled during Integrated Ocean Drilling Program Expedition 337. Two approaches were used to simulate the deep coalbed biosphere: (a) In the first approach, the deep biosphere was modelled using a material balance approach that treats the deep biosphere as a carbon reservoir, in which fluxes are governed by temperature-controlled metabolic processes that retain carbon via cell-growth and cell-repair and pass it back via cell-damaging reactions. (b) In the second approach, the deep biosphere was modelled as a microbial community with a temperature-controlled growth ratio and carrying capacity (a limit on the size of the deep biosphere) modulated by diagenetic-processes. In all cases, the biosphere in the coalbeds and adjacent habitat are best modelled as a carbon-limited community undergoing starvation because labile sedimentary organic matter is no longer present and petroleum generation is yet to occur. This state of starvation was represented by the conversion of organic carbon to authigenic carbonate and the formation of kerogen. The potential for the biosphere to be stimulated by the generation of carbon-dioxide from the coal during its transition from brown to sub-bituminous coal was evaluated and a net thickness of 20 m of lignite was found sufficient to support an order of magnitude greater number of cells within a low-total organic carbon (TOC) horizon. By comparison, the stimulation of microbial populations in a coalbed or high-TOC horizon would be harder to detect because the increase in population size would be proportionally very small.     

Mixed layer depth climatology of the North Pacific based on Argo observations

A monthly mean climatology of the mixed layer depth (MLD) in the North Pacific has been produced by using Argo observations. The optimum method and parameter for evaluating the MLD from the Argo data are statistically determined. The MLD and its properties from each density profile were calculated with the method and parameter. The monthly mean climatology of the MLD is computed on a 2° × 2° grid with more than 30 profiles for each grid. Two bands of deep mixed layer with more than 200 m depth are found to the north and south of the Kuroshio Extension in the winter climatology, which cannot be reproduced in some previous climatologies. Early shoaling of the winter mixed layer between 20–30°N, which has been pointed out by previous studies, is also well recognized. A notable feature suggested by our climatology is that the deepest mixed layer tends to occur about one month before the mixed layer density peaks in the middle latitudes, especially in the western region, while they tend to coincide with each other in higher latitudes.     

Symmetrical fft technique and its applications to earthquake engineering

The objective of this paper is to propose an FFT technique symmetrical for time and frequency, in which the symmetrization is done by introducing generating functions. By the symmetrical treatment, it becomes possible to derive several complementary relations in the time and frequency domains. Based on the idea of the symmetrical FFT technique, the phase problem of seismic waves is discussed not only in the frequency domain but also in the time domain. Furthermore, the deconvolution technique to evaluate the minimum-phase-shift and all-pass functions of seismic waves, which is not discussed sufficiently in earthquake engineering, is developed in the two domains. Numerical examples to present these basic ideas are also illustrated in the symmetrical framework.