Lake sediments from Store Koldewey, Northeast Greenland, as archive of Late Pleistocene and Holocene climatic and environmental changes

A 2.9 m long sedimentary record was studied from a small lake, here referred to as Duck Lake, located at 76°25'N, 18°45'W on Store Koldewey, an elongated island off the coast of Northeast Greenland. The sediments were investigated for their geophysical and biogeochemical characteristics, and for their fossil chironomid assemblages. Organic matter began to accumulate in the lake at 9.1 cal. kyr BP, which provides a minimum age for the deglaciation of the basin. Although the early to mid-Holocene is known as a thermal maximum in East Greenland, organic matter accumulation in the lake remained low during the early Holocene, likely due to late plant immigration and lack of nutrient availability. Organic matter accumulation increased during the middle and late Holocene, when temperatures in East Greenland gradually decreased. Enhanced soil formation probably led to higher nutrient availability and increased production in the lake. Chironomids are abundant throughout the record after 9.1 cal. kyr BP and seem to react sensitively to changes in temperature and nutrient availability. It is concluded that relative temperature reconstructions based on biogeochemical data have to be regarded critically, particularly in the period shortly after deglaciation when nutrient availability was low. Chironomids may be a suitable tool for climatic reconstructions even in those high arctic environments. However, a better understanding of the ecology of chironomids under these extreme conditions is needed.     

Incorporating Cellular Automata simulators as analytical engines in GIS

Contemporvy GIS suffer from a variety of problems. These include poor ability to handle dynamic spatial models, poor performance for many operations, and poor handling of the temporal dimension. Cellular Automata (CA) are dynamic mathematical systems based on discrete time and space. While CA have many similarities to GIS, and indeed excel in many areas in which GIS are deficient, they cannot themselves be considered as GIS since they lack the necessary sophisticated Capabilities in data input, data storage and retrieval, and data output. However, the advantages of CA in data analysis and modelling are significant. In order to exploit fully the advantages of each system - GIS and CA - we have developed a methodology and prototype system for coupling GIS and CA, in which the CA serves as an alternative analytical engine for the GIS. In the prototype system, spatial, temporal (i.e. time series), and spatio-temporal filters as well as spatial diffusion operators are developed. In addition, the integrated system provides a flexible framework for the programming and running of dynamic spatial models. We conclude that CA represent a viable alternate analytical engine for GIS and provide increased ability for dynamic spatial modelling within GIS.     

Early Pleistocene sediments on Store Koldewey,northeast Greenland

Bennike, O., Knudsen, K. L., Abrahamsen, N., Böcher, J., Cremer, H. & Wagner, B. 2010: Early Pleistocene sediments on Store Koldewey, northeast Greenland. Boreas, Vol. 39, pp. 603–619. 10.1111/j.1502‐3885.2010.00147.x. ISSN 0300‐9483. Marine Quaternary deposits, here named the Store Koldewey Formation, are found at ～120 m above sea level in northeast Greenland (76°N). The sequence is referred to the Olduvai normal polarity subchron at 1.95–1.78 Ma BP based on palaeomagnetic studies (palaeomagnetically reversed), amino acid epimerization ratios and evidence from marine and non‐marine fossils. The sediments and the fauna show that the sequence was deposited on a mid or inner shelf, and some elements of the marine mollusc and foraminiferal assemblages indicate water temperatures between ?1 and +1 °C and seasonal sea ice cover during deposition. Mean summer air temperatures were around 6 °C higher than at present, as demonstrated by the occurrence of southern extralimital terrestrial species. Well‐preserved remains of land plants indicate that the adjacent land area was dominated by sub‐arctic forest‐tundra with the trees Larix and Betula, shrubs, herbs and mosses. Most of the species represented as fossils have recent circumpolar geographical ranges. An extinct brachiopod species and an extinct gastropod species have been found, but the other macrofossils are referred to extant species. The brachiopod is erected as a new genus and species, Laugekochiana groenlandica. Correlation of the Koldewey Formation with the Île de France Formation farther to the north is suggested. Member A of the Kap København Formation in North Greenland is referred to the Late Pliocene, whereas Member B of the Kap København Formation is suggested to be slightly older than the Store Koldewey Formation.     

A Holocene seabird record from Raffles Sø sediments, East Greenland, in response to climatic and oceanic changes

A 3.5-m-long sediment sequence from a lake on Raffles Ø, off Liverpool Land, East Greenland, was investigated for chronology, lithology, palynology and biogeochemistry. Radiocarbon-dating of plant remains and the lithology of the sediment succession indicate continuous sedimentation since deglaciation of the area prior to 10000 cal. yr BP. The postglacial palynological record shows little variation and evidence of a wind-transported pollen supply, both resulting from the geographical characteristics of Raffles Ø. Significant variations in the biogeochemical data reflect changes in aquatic bioproduction. These changes depend to some extent on climatic changes; however, they are mainly due to variations in seabird breeding colonies in the catchment which influence nutrient and cadmium supply to the lake. Large seabird breeding colonies were present between 7500 and 1900, from 1000 to 500, and since c. 100 cal. yr BP. Their absence prior to 7500 cal. yr BP may be the result of unsuitable feeding conditions close to Raffles Ø caused by a too dense or too open sea-ice cover. In contrast, between 1900 and 1000 and from 500 to 100 cal. yr BP, the seabird settlement was probably restricted by an insufficiently long breeding season due to cold climate conditions in East Greenland.     

Properties of dust aerosol particles transported to Portugal from the Sahara desert

Aerosol properties of mineral particles in the far field of an African desert dust outbreak were investigated that brought Saharan dust over the Mediterranean in different layers to Portugal. The measurements were performed inside the project Desert Aerosols over Portugal (DARPO) which was linked to the Saharan Mineral Dust Experiment (SAMUM). The maximum particle mass concentration was about 150 μg m⁻³ and the corresponding scattering coefficient was 130 M m⁻¹ which results in a mass scattering efficiency of 0.87 m² g⁻¹. The aerosol optical depth reached values up to 0.53 and the lidar ratio was between 45 and 50 in the whole dust loaded column. A comparison between particle size distributions and refractive indices derived from different instruments and models showed a general good agreement but some minor differences could also be observed. Measurements as well as calculations with a particle transport model suggest that there is a relatively higher concentration of very large particles in the upper region of the dust layer than on the surface which is likely connected with meteorological conditions at the observational site (Évora, Portugal).     

苏鲁超高压变质岩的构造热历史：中国大陆科学钻探工程(CCSD)主孔（MH）和先导孔（PP2）的磷灰石裂变径迹约束

本文包括中国大陆科学钻（CCSD）主孔（MH）0~5000m和先导孔（PP2）0~1000m的磷灰石裂变径迹分折结果,先导孔PP2的裂变径迹表观年龄变化范围为79.5±5.1~50.4±6.2Ma,主孔的裂变径迹表观年龄变化范围为98.6±17.0~2.9±2.0Ma,主孔在4200m以下,磷灰石样品中实际上已不存在自发裂变径迹,表明裂变径迹时钟已经“置零”。实验资料表明,裂变径迹表观年龄值随样品深度的增加而逐渐减少,直到一定深度,即达到磷灰石的裂变径迹封闭温度（~120℃）以后,年龄值为零。根据主孔0~2000m和先导孔0~1000m的裂变径迹年龄剖面,作为一级近似,计算出超高压变质岩体在90~30Ma期间,平均隆升速度为~35m/Ma。对主孔测定了9个样品的约束径迹（Confined track）长度,样品约束径迹平均长度的变化范围约为13.1~7.4μm,总的变化趋势是：约束径迹平均长度随样品深度的增加而逐渐减少。样品的约束径迹长度分布都具有双峰型特征。根据裂变径迹年龄和约束径迹长度的资料,应用计算机模拟得到了样品的时间-温度（t-T）轨迹。结果表明,岩体从早白垩世（~120Ma）快速冷却以后,在晚白垩世和始新世又经历了两次加热作用,始新世末岩体所达到的温度大约是80℃,随后岩体则一直上升和缓慢冷却到现今所处的位置。在最后~30Ma岩体的平均隆升速度为~53m/Ma。     

Chironomids as indicators of the Holocene climatic and environmental history of two lakes in Northeast Greenland

Schmidt, S., Wagner, B., Heiri, O., Klug, M., Bennike, O. & Melles, M. 2010: Chironomids as indicators of the Holocene climatic and environmental history of two lakes in Northeast Greenland. Boreas, 10.1111/j.1502‐3885.2010.00173.x. ISSN 0300‐9483. Two Holocene sediment sequences from arctic lakes on Store Koldewey, an island in Northeast Greenland, were investigated for fossil chironomid assemblages. A total of 18 and 21 chironomid taxa were identified in 290‐ and 252‐cm‐long sediment sequences from Duck Lake and Hjort Lake, respectively. The chironomid assemblages were very similar in the two lakes. Canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) was used to compare fossil chironomid assemblages from Store Koldewey with chironomid assemblages and environmental conditions presently found in Canadian Arctic lakes and, hence, to infer environmental changes for Northeast Greenland. The first chironomids appeared at c. 9500 cal. a BP in Hjort Lake, and 500 years later in Duck Lake. Taxa typical for cold and nutrient‐poor arctic lakes dominated the earliest assemblages. Chironomid assemblages with taxa typical of higher summer air temperatures and lakes with higher nutrient availability occur between 8000 and 5000 cal. a BP. This period probably marks the regional Holocene thermal maximum, which is relatively late compared with some palaeoenvironmental records from East Greenland. One possible reason could be the location of Store Koldewey at the very outer coast, with local climatic conditions strongly influenced by the cold East Greenland Current. From around 5000 cal. a BP, chironomid assemblages in Duck Lake and Hjort Lake again became more typical of those presently found in Northeast Greenland, indicating relatively cold and nutrient‐poor conditions. This shift coincides with an increase of ice‐rafting debris off East Greenland and an intensification of the East Greenland Current.     

Late Quaternary history of the Kap Mackenzie area,northeast Greenland

Wagner, B., Bennike, O., Cremer, H. & Klug, M. 2010: Late Quaternary history of the Kap Mackenzie area, northeast Greenland. Boreas, Vol. 39, pp. 492–504. 10.1111/j.1502‐3885.2010.00148.x. ISSN 0300‐9483. The Kap Mackenzie area on the outer coast of northeast Greenland was glaciated during the last glacial stage, and pre‐Holocene shell material was brought to the area. Dating of marine shells indicates that deglaciation occurred in the earliest Holocene, before 10 800 cal. a BP. The marine limit is around 53 m a.s.l. In the wake of the deglaciation, a glaciomarine fauna characterized the area, but after c. one millennium a more species‐rich marine fauna took over. This fauna included Mytilus edulis and Mysella sovaliki, which do not live in the region at present; the latter is new to the Holocene fauna of northeast Greenland. The oldest M. edulis sample is dated to c. 9500 cal. a BP, which is the earliest date for the species from the region and indicates that the Holocene thermal maximum began earlier in the region than previously documented. This is supported by driftwood dated to c. 9650 cal. a BP, which is the earliest driftwood date so far from northeastern Greenland and implies that the coastal area was at least partly free of sea ice in summer. As indicated by former studies, the Storegga tsunami hit the Kap Mackenzie area at c. 8100 cal. a BP. Loon Lake, at 18 m a.s.l., was isolated from the sea at c. 6200 cal. a BP, which is distinctly later than expected from existing relative sea‐level curves for the region.     

Sampling errors of the global mean sea level derived from TOPEX/Poseidon altimetry

Sampling errors of the global mean sea level derived from TOPEX/Poseidon (T/P) altimetry are explored using 31/ 4a of eddy-resolving numerical model outputs for sea level. By definition, the sampling errors would not exist if data were available everywhere at all times. Four problems with increasing and progressively added complexities are examined to understand the causes of the sampling errors. The first problem (P1) explores the error incurred because T/P with turning latitudes near 66° latitudes does not cover the entire globe. The second problem (P2) examines, in addition, the spatial sampling issue because samples are only available along T/P ground tracks. The third problem (P3) adds the additional complexity that sea level at any along track location is sampled only once every 10 d versus every 3 d for the model (i.e., the temporal sampling issue). The fourth problem (P4) incorporates the full complexity with the addition of real T/P data outages. The numerical model (Los Alamos POP model Run 11) conserves the total water volume, thus generating no global mean sea level variation. Yet when the model sea level is sampled in the four problems (with P4 using the real T/P sampling), variations occur as manifestations of the sampling errors. The results show root-mean-squares (rms) sampling errors for P1 of 0.67 (0.75) mm for 10 d (3 d) global mean sea level, 0.78 (0.86) mm for P2, 0.79 mm for P3, and 1.07 mm for P4, whereas the amplitudes of the sampling errors can be as large as 2.0 (2.7) mm for P1, 2.1 (2.7) mm for P2, 2.2 mm for P3, and 2.5 mm for P4. The results clearly show the largest source of the sampling errors to be the lack of global coverage (i.e., P1), which the model has actually underestimated due to its own less-than-global coverage (between latitudes about 77° latitudes). We have extrapolated that a truly global model would show the rms sampling error to be 1.14 (1.28) mm for P1, thus implying a substantially larger sampling error for P4.     

Geochemical Evaluation of the Permian Ecca Shale in Eastern Cape Province,South Africa: Implications for Shale Gas Potential

Shale gas has been the exploration focus for future energy supply in South Africa in recent time. Specifically, the Permian black shales of the Prince Albert, Whitehill, Collingham, Ripon and Fort Brown Formations are considered to be most prospective rocks for shale gas exploration. In this study,outcrop and core samples from the Ecca Group were analyzed to assess their total organic carbon(TOC), organic matter type, thermal maturity and hydrocarbon generation potential. These rocks have TOC ranging from 0.11 to 7.35 wt%. The genetic potential values vary from 0.09 to 0.53 mg HC/g,suggesting poor hydrocarbon generative potential. Most of the samples have Hydrogen Index(HI) values of less than 50 mg HC/g TOC, thus suggesting Type-Ⅳ kerogen. Tmax values range from 318℃ to601℃, perhaps indicating immature to over-maturity of the samples. The vitrinite reflectance values range from 2.22% to 3.93%, indicating over-maturity of samples. Binary plots of HI against Oxygen Index(OI), and HI versus Tmax show that the shales are of Type II and mixed Type Ⅱ-Ⅲ kerogen.Based on the geochemical data, the potential source rocks are inferred as immature to over-matured and having present-day potential to produce gas.