6: Classification of VMS deposits: Lessons from the South Uralides

VMS deposits of the South Urals developed within the evolving Urals palaeo-ocean between Silurian and Late Devonian times. Arc-continent collision between Baltica and the Magnitogorsk Zone (arc) in the south-western Urals effectively terminated submarine volcanism in the Magnitogorsk Zone with which the bulk of the VMS deposits are associated. The majority of the Urals VMS deposits formed within volcanic-dominated sequences in deep seawater settings. Preservation of macro and micro vent fauna in the sulphide bodies is both testament to the seafloor setting for much of the sulphides but also the exceptional degree of preservation and lack of metamorphic overprint of the deposits and host rocks. The deposits in the Urals have previously been classified in terms of tectonic setting, host rock associations and metal ratios in line with recent tectono-stratigraphic classifications. In addition to these broad classes, it is clear that in a number of the Urals settings, an evolution of the host volcanic stratigraphy is accompanied by an associated change in the metal ratios of the VMS deposits, a situation previously discussed, for example, in the Noranda district of Canada.Two key structural settings are implicated in the South Urals. The first is seen in a preserved marginal allochthon west of the Main Urals Fault where early arc tholeiites host Cu–Zn mineralization in deposits including Yaman Kasy, which is host to the oldest macro vent fauna assembly known to science. The second tectonic setting for the South Urals VMS is the Magnitogorsk arc where study has highlighted the presence of a preserved early forearc assemblage, arc tholeiite to calc-alkaline sequences and rifted arc bimodal tholeiite sequences. The boninitc rocks of the forearc host Cu–(Zn) and Cu–Co VMS deposits, the latter hosted in fragments within the Main Urals Fault Zone (MUFZ) which marks the line of arc-continent collision in Late Devonian times. The arc tholeiites host Cu–Zn deposits with an evolution to more calc-alkaline felsic volcanic sequences matched with a change to Zn–Pb–Cu polymetallic deposits, often gold-rich. Large rifts in the arc sequence are filled by thick bimodal tholeiite sequences, themselves often showing an evolution to a more calc-alkaline nature. These thick bimodal sequences are host to the largest of the Cu–Zn VMS deposits.The exceptional degree of preservation in the Urals has permitted the identification of early seafloor clastic and hydrolytic modification (here termed halmyrolysis sensu lato) to the sulphide assemblages prior to diagenesis and this results in large-scale modification to the primary VMS body, resulting in distinctive morphological and mineralogical sub-types of sulphide body superimposed upon the tectonic association classification.It is proposed that a better classification of seafloor VMS systems is thus achievable using a three stage classification based on (a) tectonic (hence bulk volcanic chemistry) association, (b) local volcanic chemical evolution within a single edifice and (c) seafloor reworking and halmyrolysis.     

Monte Carlo modeling of neutral gas and dust in the coma of Comet 1P/Halley

The neutral gas environment of a comet is largely influenced by dissociation of parent molecules created at the surface of the comet and collisions of all the involved species. We compare the results from a kinetic model of the neutral cometary environment with measurements from the Neutral Mass Spectrometer and the Dust Impact Detection System onboard the Giotto spacecraft taken during the fly-by at Comet 1P/Halley in 1986. We also show that our model is in good agreement with contemporaneous measurements obtained by the International Ultraviolet Explorer, sounding rocket experiments, and various ground based observations.The model solves the Boltzmann equation with a Direct Simulation Monte Carlo technique (Tenishev, V., Combi, M., Davidsson, B. [2008]. Astrophys. J. 685, 659-677) by tracking trajectories of gas molecules and dust grains under the influence of the comet’s weak gravity field with momentum exchange among particles modeled in a probabilistic manner. The cometary nucleus is considered to be the source of dust and the parent species (in our model: H₂O, CO, H₂CO, CO₂, CH₃OH, C₂H₆, C₂H₄, C₂H₂, HCN, NH₃, and CH₄) in the coma. Subsequently our model also tracks the corresponding dissociation products (H, H₂, O, OH, C, CH, CH₂, CH₃, N, NH, NH₂, C₂, C₂H, C₂H₅, CN, and HCO) from the comet’s surface all the way out to 10⁶ km.As a result we are able to further constrain cometary the gas production rates of CO (13%), CO₂ (2.5%), and H₂CO (1.5%) relative to water without invoking unknown extended sources.     

Incorporating known petrophysical model in the seismic full-waveform inversion using the Gramian constraint

In this paper, we develop a general approach to integrating petrophysical models in three-dimensional seismic full-waveform inversion based on the Gramian constraints. In the framework of this approach, we present an example of the frequency-domain P-wave velocity inversion guided by an electrical conductivity model. In order to introduce a coupling between the two models, we minimize the corresponding Gramian functional, which is included in the Tikhonov parametric functional. We demonstrate that in the case of a single-physics inversion guided by a model of different physical type, the general expressions of the Gramian functional and its gradients become simple and easy to program. We also prove that the Gramian functional has a non-negative quadratic form, so it can be easily incorporated in a standard gradient-based minimization scheme. The developed new approach of seismic inversion guided by the known petrophysical model has been validated by three-dimensional inversion of synthetic seismic data generated for a realistic three-dimensional model of the subsurface.     

Comparison of the Brunhes epoch geomagnetic secular variation recorded in the volcanic and sedimentary rocks

The results of numerical modeling of the geomagnetic secular variation by the method of the Giant Gaussian Process (GGP) are presented and compared with the information derived from the presentday databases for paleointensity. The variances of the positions of the virtual geomagnetic pole (VGP) calculated from the synthetic and experimental data (Brunhes epoch, effusive rocks) are nearly similar, which supports the validity of the theoretical model. The average value of the virtual axial geomagnetic dipole (VADM) calculated from the PINT world database on paleointensity and the Sint-2000 model is lower than VADM calculated by the GGP model; at the same time, the estimates based on the archaeomagnetic data give the VADM value slightly above the model prediction. The largest difference is observed in the variances of VADM, which is for all the three databases noticeably higher than the value calculated from the GGP model. Most probably, this is due to the contribution of the neglected measurement errors of VADM.     

The Einstein static model of the universe as a whole

The Einstein static model of the universe as a whole is considered in Euclidean space and absolute time of a privileged reference frame. The universe as a whole is stable that specifies observers at rest relative to the global space of the universe. An observer in the centre of the universe is assumed to experience downward inertial acceleration along a certain radius due to the kinetic energy of the universe, with the total acceleration over all radii being equal zero. This yields the Doppler effect for the photon coming from the distant source that may explain the Hubble law in the static universe. The predictions of the model are qualitatively in agreement with the observations in the cosmological tests of a standard candle and a standard rod. Explanation of stretching of the light curve of SN Ia is proposed within the model considered.     

Constraints of the laboratory physics on the model of the universe

Constraints of the laboratory physics on the model of the universe are considered. The constraints are derived from the measurement procedure for the flux of electromagnetic radiation and valid for any model of the universe. In classical physics, an observer in the frame of the detector can measure the transformation (1+z)^?1 for the energy flux of the electromagnetic wave emitted in the frame of the source but cannot any transformation for space and time between the frames of the source and detector. In quantum mechanics, the energy of the electromagnetic radiation as a function of the distance may be measured as a redshifted frequency of photon (1+z) or as a decrease of the intensity of radiation (1+z).     

About the types of density profiles of fish aggregations and phytoplankton patches

This paper discusses the structure of fish and phytoplankton aggregations, using the transect characteristics method and the data collected during cruise 11 of the R/VArtemida in the South-West Atlantic Ocean. A method of phytoplankton field classification by the type of aggregation is suggested. On the basis of experimentally compiled data, a new way of determining the minimum living distances between hydrobionts has been developed. Translated by Vladimir A. Puchkin.     

Geo-informational simulation of possible changes in Central Asian water resources

This study simulates water resources in the Tien Shan alpine basins to forecast how global and regional climate changes would affect river runoff. The model employed annual mean values for the major characteristics of the water cycle: annual air temperature, precipitation, evapotranspiration and river runoff. The simulation was based on 304 hydro-meteorological stations, 23 precipitation sites, 328 high altitudinal points with glaciological measurements, 123 stream-gauges, and 54 evaporation sites, and it took into account topography. The findings were simulated over Tien Shan relief using a 1:500,000 scale 100 m grid resolution Digital Elevation Model. An applicable GIS-based distributed River Runoff Model was implemented in regional conditions and tested in the Tien Shan basins. The annual evapotranspiration exceeds the river runoff in the Tien Shan watersheds particularly up to 3700 m. Hypothetical climate-change scenarios in the Tien Shan predict that by 2100 river runoff will increase by 1.047 times with an increase in air temperature averaging 3 °C and an increase in precipitation averaging 1.2 times the current levels. Change in precipitation, rather than temperature, is the main parameter determining river runoff in the Tien Shan. The maximum ratio for predicted river runoff could reach up to 2.2 and the minimum is predicted to be 0.55 times current levels. This possibly dramatic change in river runoff indicates on non-linear system response caused mainly by the non-linear response of evapotranspiration from air temperature and precipitation changes. In the frame of forecasted possible climate change scenarios the probability of river runoff growth amounts 83–87% and probability of this decline is 17–13% by 2100 in the Tien Shan River basins.