Soluble organic compounds in fog and cloud droplets: what have we learned over the past few years?

We have recently set up a new procedure for characterising the water soluble organic compounds (WSOC) in fog water, for which information is still rather limited. Fog samples collected during the 1998–1999 fall–winter season in the Po Valley (Italy) were analysed following this procedure, which allows a quantitative determination of three main classes of organic compounds (neutral species, mono- and di-carboxylic acids, polycarboxylic acids), together accounting for ca. 85% of the total WSOC. This procedure also provides information on the main chemical characteristics of these three classes of compounds (functional groups, aliphatic vs. aromatic character, etc.). The enhanced chemical knowledge on fog/cloud chemical composition opens new scenarios as far as chemical and microphysical processes in clouds and fogs are concerned.     

Environmental protection in the Apuseni Mountains: The role of Environmental Non-Governmental Organisations (ENGOs)

The Apuseni Mountains constitute one of the most interesting parts of the Carpathians in terms of landscape, biodiversity and culture. Yet dislocations are now severe and there are development threats which also require a significant response. On the one hand there are some severe pollution problems associated with mining areas developed in the communist period which require remedial action and the cases of Roşia Montana and Zlatna are discussed. On the other hand, there are forest and pasture zones – especially the Padiş Plateau – which are coming under heavy pressure from farmers seeking to enhance their incomes following the decline of mining and manufacturing which has left many households without salaries. At the same time, tourist pressure is growing. Actions are already being taken to limit pollution damage and develop sustainable landuse practices. There is a national park project linked with nature reserves comprising picturesque landscapes, a rare flora and fauna and distinct geological and palaeotological formations (including fossil ice). There are major tourist attractions and with proper management they could become part of a development programme of the countryside. However it is essential that all stakeholders adopt sustainable practices and this means that official programmes – including the future national park authority administration's work in environment protection and tourism management – are backed up by Environmental Non-Governmental Organisations (ENGOs). The paper reviews their diverse activities and concludes that they are making a very substantial contribution in ensuring that the potentials of isolated regions can be utilised in a manner consistent with nature conservation. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Aperçu synthétique sur la tectonique des Carpates Roumaines

Résumé À la constitution des Carpates Roumaines participent les plissements hercyniens et carpatiques.Les déformations géométriques hercyniennes ont résulté des plissements profonds déterminés par le métamorphisme régional. Elles ont influencé d'une manière de plus en plus atténuée les plissements carpatiques. Pendant le paroxisme mésocrétacé, la tectonique carpatique a engendré des nappes de décollement et des glissements grâce à un simple mécanisme, expliqué par la pesanteur.Les nappes à vergences anticarpatiques se sont formées pendant la phase laramienne. Elles sont également le résultat de la pesanteur associée à l'action de la sous-poussée.Les nappes polygénétiques sont les nappes les plus jeunes et caractérisent les zones du Flysch des Carpates Orientales.Pendant le Tertiaire, une tectonique cassante a prédominé dans les Carpates.

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The Romanian Carpathians consist of three subdivisions, each of them having its tectonical features, namely: Eastern Carpathians, Southern Carpathians and Apuseni Mountains.Their architecture consists of Hercynian and Carpathian foldings. The Hercynian tectonics is due to the deep foldings during the metamorphism which called forth the metanappes. The Hercynian foldings have printed their characters into the Carpathian tectonics and into the evolution of the palaeomesozoical sedimentary zones.During the mesocretaceous phase, the gravitational tectonics develop into the Carpathian realm, generating the gravitational nappes of the Metalliferous Mountains, the Raru-Hsma massif and the Perani Mountains.The overthrusts took place at the surface and are not due to the lateral contraction of the rocks in the depth.The anticarpathian vergences are characteristic for the Laramian nappes.The Flysch tectonics is characterized by polygenetic nappes, formed during a long period and developed all along the chain.The ruptural tectonics developed in the Romanian Carpathians during Tertiary.

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Zusammenfassung Die rumänischen Karpaten lassen sich in drei Einheiten teilen, jede mit ihrer Besonderheit: Ostkarpaten, Südkarpaten und Apuseni-Gebirge. Ihr Bau besteht aus herzynischen und karpatischen Elementen. Die herzynische Tektonik ist die Folge der während der Metamorphose entstandenen Tieffaltungen, welche Metadecken hervorgebracht haben. Die herzynischen Faltungen zeigen sich im karpatischen Bau und in der Ablagerungsgeschichte. Während der mittelkretazischen Faltungsbewegungen hat die Abscherungs- und Fließtektonik das karpatische Gebiet ergriffen und das Entstehen der Schweredecken im Erzgebirge, in den Raru- und Hsma-Massiven sowie im Perani-Gebirge bedingt. Die Decken sind die Folge der in der Nähe der Erdoberfläche ablaufenden Bewegungen und keineswegs des seitlichen Druckes der Tiefgesteine. Die laramischen Decken sind durch antikarpatische Vergenzen charakterisiert und auf die Unterschiebungen der alten Blöcke zurückzuführen. Die Tektonik des Flysches zeichnet sich durch polygenetische Decken aus, die sich während mehrerer Perioden, entlang dem Faltenstreichen, entwickelt haben. Die Bruchtektonik setzte in den rumänischen Karpaten erst während des Neozoikums ein.

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Source parameters of intermediate-depth Vrancea (Romania) earthquakes from empirical Green's functions modeling

Several source parameters (source dimensions, slip, particle velocity, static and dynamic stress drop) are determined for the moderate-size October 27th, 2004 (M_W = 5.8), and the large August 30th, 1986 (M_W = 7.1) and March 4th, 1977 (M_W = 7.4) Vrancea (Romania) intermediate-depth earthquakes. For this purpose, the empirical Green's functions method of Irikura [e.g. Irikura, K. (1983). Semi-Empirical Estimation of Strong Ground Motions during Large Earthquakes. Bull. Dis. Prev. Res. Inst., Kyoto Univ., 33, Part 2, No. 298, 63–104., Irikura, K. (1986). Prediction of strong acceleration motions using empirical Green's function, in Proceedings of the 7th Japan earthquake engineering symposium, 151–156., Irikura, K. (1999). Techniques for the simulation of strong ground motion and deterministic seismic hazard analysis, in Proceedings of the advanced study course seismotectonic and microzonation techniques in earthquake engineering: integrated training in earthquake risk reduction practices, Kefallinia, 453–554.] is used to generate synthetic time series from recordings of smaller events (with 4 ≤ M_W ≤ 5) in order to estimate several parameters characterizing the so-called strong motion generation area, which is defined as an extended area with homogeneous slip and rise time and, for crustal earthquakes, corresponds to an asperity of about 100 bar stress release [Miyake, H., T. Iwata and K. Irikura (2003). Source characterization for broadband ground-motion simulation: Kinematic heterogeneous source model and strong motion generation area. Bull. Seism. Soc. Am., 93, 2531–2545.] The parameters are obtained by acceleration envelope and displacement waveform inversion for the 2004 and 1986 events and MSK intensity pattern inversion for the 1977 event using a genetic algorithm. The strong motion recordings of the analyzed Vrancea earthquakes as well as the MSK intensity pattern of the 1977 earthquake can be well reproduced using relatively small strong motion generation areas, which corresponds to small asperities with high stress drops (300–1200 bar) and high particle velocities (3–5 m/s). These results imply a very efficient high-frequency radiation, which has to be taken into account for strong ground motion prediction, and indicate that the intermediate-depth Vrancea earthquakes are inherently different from crustal events.     

Seismic behaviour of masonry buildings built of low compressive strength units

Seismic behaviour of masonry buildings, built of low compressive strength units, is discussed. Although such materials have already been tested and approved for use from mechanical and thermal insulation point of view, the knowledge regarding their structural behaviour is still lacking. In order to investigate the resistance and deformation capacity of this particular type of masonry construction in seismic conditions, a series of eight walls and model of a two-storey full scale confined masonry building have been tested by subjecting the specimens to cyclic shear loads. All tests were conducted under a combination of constant vertical load and quasi static, cyclically imposed horizontal load. The behaviour of tested specimens was of typical shear type. Compared with the behaviour of plain masonry walls, the presence of tie-columns resulted into higher resistance and displacement capacity, as well as smaller lateral resistance degradation. The response of the model was determined by storey mechanism with predominant shear behaviour of the walls and failure mechanism of the same type as in the case of individual confined masonry walls. Adequate seismic behaviour of this particular masonry structural type can be expected under the condition that the buildings are built as confined masonry system with limited number of stories.     

Seismic behaviour of confined masonry walls

The results of tests of plain and confined masonry walls with h/l ratio equal to 1·5, made at 1:5 scale, have been used to develop a rational method for modelling the seismic behaviour of confined masonry walls. A trilinear model of lateral resistance–displacement envelope curve has been proposed, where the resistance is calculated as a combination of the shear resistance of the plain masonry wall panel and dowel effect of the tie-columns’ reinforcement. Lateral stiffness, however, is modelled as a function of the initial effective stiffness and damage, occurring to the panel at characteristic limit states. Good correlation between the predicted and experimental envelopes has been obtained in the particular case studied. The method has been also verified for the case of prototype confined masonry walls with h/l ratio equal to 1·0. Good correlation between the predicted and experimental values of lateral resistance indicates the general validity of the proposed method. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Digitized Database of Old Seismograms Recorder in Romania

The aim of this paper is to describe a managing system for a unique Romanian database of historical seismograms and complementary documentation (metadata) and its dissemination and analysis procedure. For this study, 5188 historical seismograms recorded between 1903 and 1957 by the Romanian seismological observatories (Bucharest-Filaret, Foc?ani, Bac?u, Vrincioaia, Câmpulung-Muscel, Ia?i) were used. In order to reconsider the historical instrumental data, the analog seismograms are converted to digital images and digital waveforms (digitization/ vectorialisation). First, we applied a careful scanning procedure of the seismograms and related material (seismic bulletins, station books, etc.). In a next step, the high resolution scanned seismograms will be processed to obtain the digital/numeric waveforms. We used a Colortrac Smartlf Cx40 scanner which provides images in TIFF or JPG format. For digitization the algorithm Teseo2 developed by the National Institute of Geophysics and Volcanology in Rome (Italy), within the framework of the SISMOS Project, will be used.     

Some aspects of testing small-scale masonry building models on simple earthquake simulators

The basic aspects of testing small-scale masonry building models on simple earthquake simulators are discussed. Since the scale effects represent a difficult problem to solve, the overall seismic behaviour of structural systems, and not the behaviour of structulal details, has been studied by testing the reduced-sized models on a simple earthquake simulator. Accurate results regarding the dynamic behaviour and failure mechanism of the tested structures have been obtained by means of testing the relatively simple, adequately designed small-scale masonry building models. A simple earthquake simulator capable of simulating the uni-directional earthquake ground motion has been developed to study the seismic behaviour of masonry building models. Although a multipurpose programmable actuator was used to drive the shaking table, the comparison of the dynamic characteristics of the generated shaking-table motion and the earthquake acceleration records used for the simulation of seismic loads showed an acceptable degree of correlation between the input and output seismic motion.     

Tectonique rupturale des Précarpates Roumaines

Résumé L'application de données géologiques, géomorphologiques, géophysiques et géochimiques ont permis à l'auteur de reconnaÎtre dans l'avant-pays des Carpathes roumaines une série de types importants de systèmes de fractures, et de leurs associations. L'avant-pays consiste en un socle précambrien-calédonien-hercynien métamorphique et plissé. Son étage supérieur consiste en sédiments de différents âges qui ont été fracturés. Comme les fractures du socle se continuent dans l'étage supérieur, il est possible d'expliquer la tectonique cassante du domaine profond. Les systèmes de fractures de l'avant-pays carpathique permettent d'établir de nouvelles subdivisions en particulier une unité carpatho-transdanubienne consistant dans le bloc géthique et valachien, et une unité carpatho-pyréthique comprenant le compartiment inférieur de l'Oberland et du Niederland. Entre les unités précarpathiques et la chaÎne plissée carpathique, il existe des rapports tridimensionnels qui expliquent l'origine et l'évolution de la chaÎne carpathique.

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The author has identified an important number of types and associations of ruptural lines in the vorland of the Romanian Carpathians, consisting of an old (Precambrian— Caledonian and Hercynian) metamorphised and strongly folded basement. The cover of this vorland is formed of Mesozoic—Tertiary slightly folded, monoclinal or quasihorizontal deposits. The disjonctive deformations of the vorland being transmitted into the superstructure have allowed the identification of the ruptural tectonics. The disjonctival systems of the Carpathian vorland have shown a new subdivision of the Pre-Carpathian units, namely: the Carpatho-Transdanubian unit consisting of the Getic block and the Valachian block and the Carpatho-Pyretheean unit formed of the subunits ara de Sus and ara de Jos. Between these units and the Carpathian realm there are tridimensional connections which explain both the origin and the evolution of the Carpathians.

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Zusammenfassung Unter Anwendung von geologischen, geomorphologischen, geophysischen und geochemischen Ergebnissen gelang es dem Verfasser, im Vorland der rumÄnischen Karpaten eine Reihe von wichtigen Typen und Vergesellschaftungen von Bruchsystemen festzustellen. Das Vorland besteht aus einem stark gefalteten und metamorphisierten vorkambrischen, kaledonisch-herzynischen Grundgebirge. Der Oberbau desselben besteht aus Ablagerungen verschiedenen Alters, die gestört sind. Da die Brüche des Grundgebirges sich auch im Oberbau fortpflanzen, ist es möglich, die Bruchtektonik der Tiefe zu klÄren. Die Bruchsysteme des karpatischen Vorlandes erlauben eine neue Unterteilung desselben, und zwar in eine karpatisch-transdanubische Einheit, welche aus den getischen und walachischen Blöcken besteht, und in eine karpatisch-pyretische Einheit, die aus Unterabteilungen des Ober- und des Niederlandes besteht. Zwischen den vorkapatischen Einheiten und dem karpatischen Faltungssystem bestehen dreidimensionale VerhÄltnisse, welche die Entstehung und die Umgestaltung der Karpatenkette erklÄren.

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