The structure and dynamics of 2-dimensional fluids in swelling clays

The interlayer pores of swelling 2:1 clays provide an ideal 2-dimensional environment in which to study confined fluids. In this paper we discuss our understanding of the structure and dynamics of interlayer fluid species in expanded clays, based primarily on the outcome of recent molecular modelling and neutron scattering studies. Counterion solvation is compared with that measured in bulk solutions, and at a local level the cation-oxygen coordination is found to be remarkably similar in these two environments. However, for the monovalent ions the contribution to the first coordination shell from the clay surfaces increases with counterion radius. This gives rise to inner-sphere (surface) complexes in the case of potassium and caesium. In this context, the location of the negative clay surface charge (i.e. arising from octahedral or tetrahedral substitution) is also found to be of major importance. Divalent cations, such as calcium, eagerly solvate to form outer-sphere complexes. These complexes are able to pin adjacent clay layers together, and thereby prevent colloidal swelling. Confined water molecules form hydrogen bonds to each other and to the clays' surfaces. In this way their local environment relaxes to close to the bulk water structure within two molecular layers of the clay surface. Finally, we discuss the way in which the simple organic molecules methane, methanol and ethylene glycol behave in the interlayer region of hydrated clays. Quasi-elastic neutron scattering of isotopically labelled interlayer CH₃OD and (CH₂OD)₂ in deuterated clay allows us to measure the diffusion of the CH₃- and CH₂-groups in both clay and liquid environments. We find that in both the one-layer methanol solvates and the two-layer glycol solvates the diffusion of the most mobile organic molecules is close to that in the bulk solution.     

Variation in river multi-element chemistry related to bedrock buffering: an example from the Adirondack region of northern New York, USA

Water from four north-flowing rivers (Oswegatchie, Grasse, Raquette, and West Branch of the St. Regis) traversing three distinct geologic terranes (Adirondack Highlands, Adirondack Lowlands, St. Lawrence Valley), originating in the acidified northern Adirondack region, display rapid spatial changes in downriver multi-element chemistry and physical parameters. Downriver, most soluble elements increase (Ba, Ca, Cu, K, Mg, Na, Rb, S, and Sr) while statistically significant decreases in insoluble elements (Al, Ce, Dy, Er, Fe, Gd, La, Mn, Nd, Pr, and Y) also occur. Lithium, Si, and Zr did not show a consistent increasing or decreasing trend. Concentrations of most elements measured on June 5, 2008 were greater than 7?weeks later; however, greater discharge and lower pH enhanced Al concentrations occurred during the later sampling date. Elemental ratios track changes in lithology, anthropogenic influence, and pH. The Raquette River shows the least variation in elemental concentrations because of storage in numerous hydropower reservoirs and has non-detectable concentrations of some redox sensitive elements such as Co, Ni, and V. Oswegatchie tributaries display similar geochemical trends dependent upon their location and local bedrock and show geochemical trends along the trunks of major rivers that are also evident in smaller drainage basins. Comparison with analytical results from the Western Adirondack Stream Survey also indicates acidification is prevalent in the Adirondack Highlands, particularly in the Oswegatchie headwaters during periods of high flow, but acidity is rapidly buffered downriver due to interaction with marble in the Adirondack Lowlands.     

Coupling between subtropical cloud feedback and the local hydrological cycle in a climate model

In HadGEM2-A, AMIP experiments forced with observed sea surface temperatures respond to uniform and patterned +4 K SST perturbations with strong positive cloud feedbacks in the subtropical stratocumulus/trade cumulus transition regions. Over the subtropical Northeast Pacific at 137°W/26°N, the boundary layer cloud fraction reduces considerably in the AMIP +4 K patterned SST experiment. The near-surface wind speed and the air-sea temperature difference reduces, while the near-surface relative humidity increases. These changes limit the local increase in surface evaporation to just 3 W/m² or 0.6 %/K. Previous studies have suggested that increases in surface evaporation may be required to maintain maritime boundary layer cloud in a warmer climate. This suggests that the supply of water vapour from surface evaporation may not be increasing enough to maintain the low level cloud fraction in the warmer climate in HadGEM2-A. Sensitivity tests which force the surface evaporation to increase substantially in the +4 K patterned SST experiment result in smaller changes in boundary layer cloud and a weaker cloud feedback in HadGEM2-A, supporting this idea. Although global mean surface evaporation in climate models increases robustly with global temperature (and the resulting increase in atmospheric radiative cooling), local values may increase much less, having a significant impact on cloud feedback. These results suggest a coupling between cloud feedback and the hydrological cycle via changes in the patterns of surface evaporation. A better understanding of both the factors controlling local changes in surface evaporation and the sensitivity of clouds to such changes may be required to understand the reasons for inter-model differences in subtropical cloud feedback.     

The Trobriand Subduction System in the Western Solomon Sea

A south-dipping Subduction system which underlies the Trobriand Trough and 149° Embayment, on the southern margin of the Solomon Sea, is active or was recently active. Oceanic basement is overlain by 2.5 s, two-way travel time (TWTT), of sediment that shows at least two stages of deformation: early thrusts (inner wall) and normal faults (outer wall), and later normal faults that have elevated the outer trench margin. Thrust anticlines and slope basins are developed on the inner wall. The floor of the Solomon Sea Basin arches upward between the Trobriand Trough and the New Britain Trench to form isolated peaks and ridges in the east (152° Peaks) and an east-west Central Ridge in the west. Structures in the subduction system, and in the Solomon Sea Basin, plunge westward towards the point of collision with the New Britain Trench.     

Global Paleomagnetic Database Supplement number one: Update to 1992

This is the first Supplement to the Manual, first published inSurveys in Geophysics in 1991 and issued also as a separate volume, for the operation of the Global Paleomagnetic Database (GPMDB) using ORACL E. Minor changes have been made to the database structure as foreshadowed in the Manual and major extensions have been made to the MENU involving a new set of command files. These and other changes are detailed and should be read in conjunction with the original Manual. This latest Version 2.2 of the the GPMDB now contains over 7000 results with over 2600 references and covers all published data world-wide up to the end of 1992. Diskettes containing the new data set and accompanying program files may be obtained, as before, from World Data Center A in Boulder, Colorado. Both the updated data set and program files completely replace the original Version 1.4 released in August 1991.     

Combining Non-local Scalings with a TKE Closure for Mixing in Boundary-layer Clouds

A new approach to the parametrization of the cumulus-capped boundary layer is described. It combines a traditional higher-order turbulence closure, appropriate for boundary layers where the skewness of thermodynamic variable probability distributions is low (typically stratocumulus-capped), with non-local scaled similarity functions. These are introduced in order to represent explicitly that part of the distribution arising from skewed cumulus elements and the scalings are found to work very well against equilibrium shallow cumulus large-eddy simulations. Results from a wide range of single column model simulations, from stratocumulus to shallow cumulus to cumulus rising into stratocumulus, are presented that demonstrate the validity of the approach as a means of parametrizing the cloudy boundary layer. Sensitivity tests show that enhancement of the turbulence length scales and the buoyancy production of TKE are especially important.     

Evaluation of the Diurnal Cycle in the Atmospheric Boundary Layer Over Land as Represented by a Variety of Single-Column Models: The Second GABLS Experiment

We present the main results from the second model intercomparison within the GEWEX (Global Energy and Water cycle EXperiment) Atmospheric Boundary Layer Study (GABLS). The target is to examine the diurnal cycle over land in today??s numerical weather prediction and climate models for operational and research purposes. The set-up of the case is based on observations taken during the Cooperative Atmosphere-Surface Exchange Study-1999 (CASES-99), which was held in Kansas, USA in the early autumn with a strong diurnal cycle with no clouds present. The models are forced with a constant geostrophic wind, prescribed surface temperature and large-scale divergence. Results from 30 different model simulations and one large-eddy simulation (LES) are analyzed and compared with observations. Even though the surface temperature is prescribed, the models give variable near-surface air temperatures. This, in turn, gives rise to differences in low-level stability affecting the turbulence and the turbulent heat fluxes. The increase in modelled upward sensible heat flux during the morning transition is typically too weak and the growth of the convective boundary layer before noon is too slow. This is related to weak modelled near-surface winds during the morning hours. The agreement between the models, the LES and observations is the best during the late afternoon. From this intercomparison study, we find that modelling the diurnal cycle is still a big challenge. For the convective part of the diurnal cycle, some of the first-order schemes perform somewhat better while the turbulent kinetic energy (TKE) schemes tend to be slightly better during nighttime conditions. Finer vertical resolution tends to improve results to some extent, but is certainly not the solution to all the deficiencies identified.     

Generating the evidence for marine fisheries policy and management

The uptake of research in marine fisheries management and policy making depends on how effectively fisheries managers, researchers and scientific advisers communicate the needs for evidence, and the results and policy implications of research. The MariFish network of the major European funders of marine fisheries has therefore undertaken a study of current practices relating to communication of research needs and results, identifying strengths and weaknesses, and consequently how two-way communications, and hence the effectiveness of generating evidence for marine fisheries policy making and management, can be improved. Conclusions and recommendations for ‘good practice’ include the importance of building good relationships and trust between researchers and fisheries managers, the need for fisheries ministries to have sufficient inhouse scientific capacity to act as ‘intelligent customers’, and the key role of interpreters of research whose skills and career paths need to be carefully developed.