The Bilderberg model of the photosphere and low chromosphere

From 17 through 21 April 1967, an international study week was held in the Bilderberg near Arnhem, Netherlands, with the aim of obtaining an internationally acceptable model of the solar photosphere and low chromosphere. It was found that such a model, based on observed intensities and center-to-limb observations of the solar continuous spectrum, could indeed be established. This model, henceforth called the Bilderberg Continuum Atmosphere (BCA), is shown in Table I, which gives the temperature, gas and electron pressures, and other data as functions of the continuous optical depth at 5000 Å between 5000 = 10^–7 and 25. The model is characterized by a flat temperature minimum of 4600 °K between 5000 10^–2 to 10^–4. The model is homogeneous, and in hydrostatic equilibrium. A hydrogen-helium ratio of 10 has been assumed.Much divergence remains in the interpretation of line-profile observations with regard to the establishment of a photospheric model (Section 4). It proved to be as yet impossible to obtain reliable information on the variation with depth of the following functions: temperature fluctuations, turbulence velocities, convective velocities, and vibrational velocity amplitudes (Section 5). Provisionally, it is assumed that _macro = 2 km/sec and _micro = 1 km/sec, isotropic and independent of depth.     

Past Experience and the Present in the History of the Man and Nature Relationship in the Great Steppe

The considerable part of the Northern Asia is occupied with the steppe and forest-steppe landscapes stretched by a wide strip from Caspian Sea to mountains of Big Khingan.Archeologists claim, that from here on the Bering Bridge after a glacial age ancestors of American Indian tribes have left to the North America. In the Baikal Lake basin we find settlements of ancient Huns, subdued the Eastern and Western Europe in the beginning of last millennium.     

Investigation of forest-resources potential of Selenge River Basin on transboundary territory of the Republic of Buryatia and Mongolia

The author studied the issues of the present-day status of forest resources and forest management of the Selenge River Basin on the transboundary territory of the Buryat Republic and Mongolia. It is necessary to establish a good policy for wood cutting of the main and secondary use and reforestation.     

Shark and ray faunas in the Middle and Late Eocene of the Fayum Area, Egypt

The Eocene rocks exposed in the Fayum Area, Egypt, are well known for their fossil vertebrates but in recent times the sharks and rays have been largely neglected. Extensive surface collecting, supplemented with bulk samples, has produced large collections from the Midawara, Gehannam, Birket Qarun and Qasr el-Sagha formations, spanning the Bartonian and Priabonian stages and from palaeoenvironments varying from open muddy shelf to very shallow estuarine systems. In total about 90 species of sharks and rays are recorded, many of them previously unrecognised, resulting in some of the most diverse fossil chondrichthyan assemblages known from the Tertiary. Teeth of these species suggest that they occupied a wide range of ecological niches from top predator to tiny benthic invertebrate feeder to planktivore. Many of the species are limited in their stratigraphical range and show potential to be used, at least locally, as biostratigraphical indicators for stratigraphically poorly constrained vertebrate sites elsewhere in North Africa. Distinctly different faunas from different sedimentary environments indicate a strong environmental control on the distribution of many species.     

Estimation of the depth to the fresh-water/salt-water interface from vertical head gradients in wells in coastal and island aquifers

 An accurate estimate of the depth to the theoretical interface between fresh, water and salt water is critical to estimates of well yields in coastal and island aquifers. The Ghyben–Herzberg relation, which is commonly used to estimate interface depth, can greatly underestimate or overestimate the fresh-water thickness, because it assumes no vertical head gradients and no vertical flow. Estimation of the interface depth needs to consider the vertical head gradients and aquifer anisotropy that may be present. This paper presents a method to calculate vertical head gradients using water-level measurements made during drilling of a partially penetrating well; the gradient is then used to estimate interface depth. Application of the method to a numerically simulated fresh-water/salt-water system shows that the method is most accurate when the gradient is measured in a deeply penetrating well. Even using a shallow well, the method more accurately estimates the interface position than does the Ghyben–Herzberg relation where substantial vertical head gradients exist. Application of the method to field data shows that drilling, collection methods of water-level data, and aquifer inhomogeneities can cause difficulties, but the effects of these difficulties can be minimized. Received, April 1997 · Revised, January 1998 · Accepted, January 1998     

Three-dimensional variable-density flow simulation of a coastal aquifer in southern Oahu, Hawaii, USA

Three-dimensional modeling of groundwater flow and solute transport in the Pearl Harbor aquifer, southern Oahu, Hawaii, shows that the readjustment of the freshwater–saltwater transition zone takes a long time following changes in pumping, irrigation, or recharge in the aquifer system. It takes about 50 years for the transition zone to move 90% of the distance to its new steady position. Further, the Ghyben–Herzberg estimate of the freshwater/saltwater interface depth occurred between the 10 and 50% simulated seawater concentration contours in a complex manner during 100 years of the pumping history of the aquifer. Thus, it is not a good predictor of the depth of potable water. Pre-development recharge was used to simulate the 1880 freshwater-lens configuration. Historical pumpage and recharge distributions were used and the resulting freshwater-lens size and position were simulated through 1980. Simulations show that the transition zone moved upward and landward during the period simulated.Previous groundwater flow models for Oahu have been limited to areal models that simulate a sharp interface between freshwater and saltwater or solute-transport models that simulate a vertical aquifer section. The present model is based on the US Geological Surveys three-dimensional solute transport (3D SUTRA) computer code. Using several new tools for pre- and post-processing of model input and results have allowed easy model construction and unprecedented visualization of the freshwater lens and underlying transition zone in Hawaiis most developed aquifer.

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Electronic Supplementary Material Supplementary material is available in the online version of this article at .

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Resumen La modelación tridimensional del flujo de agua subterránea y del transporte de solutos en el acuífero de Pearl Harbor, en la parte sur de Oahu, Hawaii, muestra que el reajuste de la zona de transición agua dulce–agua salada, toma un largo tiempo a partir de cambios en el bombeo, irrigación o recarga en el sistema acuífero. Le toma alrededor de 50 años, a la zona de transición, moverse el 90% de la distancia hacia su nueva posición estacionaria. Además, el estimativo de Ghyben–Herzberg, sobre la profundidad de la interfase agua dulce–agua salada, se encuentra entre el 10 y el 50% en los contornos simulados de concentración de agua salada, de una manera compleja, durante 100 años de la historia de bombeo del acuífero. Por tanto, no es este un buen predictor de la profundidad del agua potable. Se utilizó una recarga pre – desarrollo, para simular la configuración del lente de agua dulce en 1880. Fueron utilizadas las distribuciones históricas del bombeo y de la recarga y se simularon el tamaño y posición resultantes del lente de agua dulce hasta 1980. Esas simulaciones muestran que la zona de transición se movió tierra adentro y hacia arriba, durante el periodo que se simuló.Los anteriores modelos de flujo para agua subterránea en Oahu, han sido limitados a modelos areales, que simulan una interfase abrupta entre agua dulce y agua salada, o bien han sido modelos de transporte de solutos que simulan una sección vertical del acuífero. El modelo presente está basado en el programa de computador del US Geological Survey (3D SUTRA), para transporte de solutos en tres dimensiones. Mediante el uso de varias herramientas nuevas para pre – procesamiento y post – procesamiento de las entradas y resultados del modelo, se ha permitido una construcción fácil del mismo y una visualización sin precedentes del lente de agua dulce y de la zona de transición subyacente en el acuífero más desarrollado de Hawaii.

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Résumé La modélisation tridimensionnelle de lécoulement et du transport dans la partie sud de laquifère Oahu-Hawai montre que le temps de réajustement de la zone de transition entre leau douce et leau salée est assez long et dépend de la variation des pompages et des irrigations, ainsi que de la recharge du système aquifère. Il sont nécessaires 50 ans pour que la zone de transition parcoure 90% de la distance qui la sépare de sa nouvelle position. La profondeur du biseau estimée par le schéma Ghyben–Herzberg se trouve entre les contours de 10 et 50% de la concentration de leau salée. Ce résultat a été obtenu après la simulation de lhistoire du pompage de laquifère pendant une période de 100 ans. Donc le schéma Ghyben–Herzberg conduit aux valeurs erronées de la profondeur de leau potable. La valeur de la recharge davant lexploitation de laquifère a été utilisée pour simuler la configuration des lentilles deau douce en 1880. En utilisant lhistoire du pompage et la distribution de la recharge ont on a simulé les dimensions et le positions des lentilles deau douce jusqu› en 1980. Les simulation montrent que le mouvement de la zone de transition est ascendant et vers le continent.Les modèles antérieurs de la zone dOahu ont été des modèles locaux qui ont simulé une interface nette eau douce-eau salée ou des modèles de transport bidimensionnels, dans une coupe verticale. Le modèle actuel est basé sur le code 3D-SUTRA, réalisé par le Service Géologique des États-Unis. L› utilisation des différents techniques de traitement des données a permis une construction facile du modèle, ainsi qu› une visualisation sans précédent des lentilles deau douces et de la zone de transition sous-jacente dans le plus grand aquifère du Hawai.

     

Precession‐scale cyclicity in the fluvial lower Eocene Willwood Formation of the Bighorn Basin,Wyoming (USA)

Little is known about controls on river avulsion at geological time scales longer than 10⁴ years, primarily because it is difficult to link observed changes in alluvial architecture to well‐defined allogenic mechanisms and to disentangle allogenic from autogenic processes. Recognition of Milankovitch‐sale orbital forcing in alluvial stratigraphy would provide unprecedented age control in terrestrial deposits, and also exploit models of allogenic forcing enabling more rigorous testing of allocyclic and autocyclic controls. The Willwood Formation of the Bighorn Basin is a lower Eocene fluvial unit distinctive for its thick sequence of laterally extensive lithological cycles on a scale of 4 to 10 m. Intervals of red palaeosols that formed on overbank mudstones are related to periods of relative channel stability when gradients between channel belts and floodplains were low. The intervening drab, heterolithic intervals with weak palaeosol development are attributed to episodes of channel avulsion that occurred when channels became super‐elevated above the floodplain. In the Deer Creek Amphitheater section in the McCullough Peaks area, these overbank and avulsion deposits alternate with a dominant cycle thickness of ca 7·1 m. Using integrated stratigraphic age constraints, this cyclicity has an estimated period of ca 21·6 kyr, which is in the range of the period of precession climate cycles in the early Eocene. Previous analyses of three older and younger sections in the Bighorn Basin showed a similar 7 to 8 m spacing of red palaeosol clusters with an estimated duration close to the precession period. Intervals of floodplain stability alternating with episodes of large‐scale reorganization of the fluvial system could be entirely autogenic; however, the remarkable regularity and the match in time scales documented here indicate that these alternations were probably paced by allogenic, astronomically forced climate change.