塔里木盆地东河砂岩沉积和储层特征及综合分析

东河砂岩是一套覆盖广泛的海侵初期的沉积产物,但不是一个等时沉积体,相当于晚泥盆世晚期至早石炭世早期沉积,具体沉积时间各地有差异。东河砂岩具有海侵初期填平补齐的特征,其沉积相决定于海侵的速度、沉积物的供给和海侵前的古地貌。塔北地区受塔北古隆起的阻挡,海水在古隆起周围滞留时间较长,又有较粗粒的物源供给,其沉积产物主要是滨岸海滩沉积;塔中地区由于地形复杂,沉积类型也比较复杂,底部砾岩段为河流相沉积,而块状砂岩段和砂砾岩段为河口湾和滨岸海滩沉积,不同段在成分、分选性和粒级上有较大的差异;塔里木盆地其他低平地区主要是海侵期快速的滨岸和陆架沉积。受沉积因素影响,东河砂岩有效储层的分布具有地域性,除沉积因素外,低的地温梯度和短期的深埋藏也是优质储层发育的重要控制因素。     

Seismic waves in rocks with fluids and fractures

Seismic wave propagation through the earth is often strongly affected by the presence of fractures. When these fractures are filled with fluids (oil, gas, water, CO₂, etc.), the type and state of the fluid (liquid or gas) can make a large difference in the response of the seismic waves. This paper summarizes recent work on methods of deconstructing the effects of fractures, and any fluids within these fractures, on seismic wave propagation as observed in reflection seismic data. One method explored here is Thomsen's weak anisotropy approximation for wave moveout (since fractures often induce elastic anisotropy due to non-uniform crack-orientation statistics). Another method makes use of some very convenient crack/fracture parameters introduced previously that permit a relatively simple deconstruction of the elastic and wave propagation behaviour in terms of a small number of crack-influence parameters (whenever this is appropriate, as is certainly the case for small crack densities). Then, the quantitative effects of fluids on these crack-influence parameters are shown to be directly related to Skempton's coefficient B of undrained poroelasticity (where B typically ranges from 0 to 1). In particular, the rigorous result obtained for the low crack density limit is that the crack-influence parameters are multiplied by a factor  (1 − B )  for undrained systems. It is also shown how fracture anisotropy affects Rayleigh wave speed, and how measured Rayleigh wave speeds can be used to infer shear wave speed of the fractured medium in some cases. Higher crack density results are also presented by incorporating recent simulation data on such cracked systems.     

BaCO<Subscript>3</Subscript>: high-temperature crystal structures and the <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pmcn</Emphasis>→<Emphasis Type="Italic">R</Emphasis>3<Emphasis Type="Italic">m</Emphasis> phase transition at 811°C

The temperature (T) evolution of the barium carbonate (BaCO₃) structure was studied using Rietveld structure refinements based on synchrotron X-ray diffraction and a powdered synthetic sample. BaCO₃ transforms from an orthorhombic, Pmcn, α phase to a trigonal, R3m, β phase at 811°C. The orthorhombic BaCO₃ structure is isotypic with aragonite, CaCO₃. In trigonal R3m BaCO₃, the CO₃ group occupies one orientation and shows no rotational disorder. The average <Ba–O> distances increase while the <C–O> distances decrease linearly with T in the orthorhombic phase. After the 811°C phase transition, the <Ba–O> distances increase while C–O distances decrease. There is also a significant volume change of 2.8% at the phase transition.     

Earthquake-induced soft-sediment deformation structures in the Mesoproterozoic Wumishan Formation,North China,and their geologic implications

Soft-sediment structures are key to defining seismites. Two soft-sediment deformation horizons, bounded by undeformed carbonate strata, have been found in the Wumishan Formation in the Jumahe region, 175 km southwest of Beijing. One is in the lowest part of Wumishan Formation; and the other is in the uppermost part of Litho-member I. The soft-sediment structures in these two horizons fall into three categories: mould-and-sag structures, hydraulic shatterings and liquefaction dikes. The mould-and-sag structures are divided into two types: one developed in tidal-flat sediments, accompa-nied by many liquefaction-related structures and characterized by autochthonous post-earthquake sediments in sags, and the other type developed in deep-water environments, is not associated with liquefaction structures, and is overlain immediately by seismogenic tsunamites. The hydraulic shat-terings are composed of pockets of fluidization conglomerate, sand intrusions, and syndepositional faults. The liquefaction dikes fall into two categories: hydraulic-fracturing dikes and lateral-spreading dikes. The former are steep, planar, and pinch out upwards. The latter are snake-like and characterized by no diapir-related drag structures in surrounding rocks. Examination of the attitudes and strati-graphic positions of these structures suggests that these soft-sediment structures are seismogenic, and consequently, are seismites. Most seismites in the Wumishan Formation are developed near the former western, margin fault of Yanliao rift. This occurrence suggests that they could be related to movements on this fault. Other geological implications are discussed.     

Possible resetting of quartz OSL signals during earthquakes—Evidence from late Pleistocene injection dikes, Dead Sea basin, Israel

Clastic dikes are formed either by passive deposition of clastic material into pre-existing fissures (depositional dikes), or by fracturing and injection of clastics during earthquakes (injection dikes). We proposed to use optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating to distinguish between the two modes of formation and hypothesized that (1) depositional dikes filled from above show OSL ages younger than the host rock; and (2) injection dikes filled from below show the same OSL ages as that of the host rock. We studied the mechanisms of clastic-dike formation and their ages within the seismically active Dead Sea basin, where hundreds of dikes crosscut the late Pleistocene (70–15 ka) lacustrine sediments of the Lisan Formation. Field observations and analysis of magnetic tensors show unequivocally that most of these dikes were emplaced by injection, inferred to be due to seismically triggered fluidization–liquefaction during earthquakes. Twenty-eight samples were collected from the Lisan source material and dikes that, based on field observations, are unmistakably either depositional dikes or injection dikes.

Quartz single aliquot OSL ages of the source Lisan layers are between 43 and 34 ka, and are typical for the Lisan Formation. The ages of both depositional and injection dikes are between 15 and 17 ka, younger than the Lisan host rock. Depositional dikes show a highly scattered distribution of single grain ages, suggesting several episodes of infill. Single grain ages of injection dikes are of latest Pleistocene to Holocene, and do not contain recently bleached grains that infiltrated from above. These results imply that the OSL signals were reset at the time of fluidization–liquefaction and buildup of fluid pressure within the injection dikes. If this resetting mechanism has a physical ground, then OSL dating is an important tool for constraining the ages of earthquake-induced injection dikes and recovering paleoseismic data from them.     

Ray tracing for continuously rotated local coordinates belonging to a specified anisotropy

Conventional ray tracing for arbitrarily anisotropic and heterogeneous media is expressed in terms of 21 elastic moduli belonging to a fixed, global, Cartesian coordinate system. Our principle objective is to obtain a new ray-tracing formulation, which takes advantage of the fact that the number of independent elastic moduli is often less than 21, and that the anisotropy thus has a simpler nature locally, as is the case for transversely isotropic and orthorhombic media. We have expressed material properties and ray-tracing quantities (e.g., ray-velocity and slowness vectors) in a local anisotropy coordinate system with axes changing directions continuously within the model. In this manner, ray tracing is formulated in terms of the minimum number of required elastic parameters, e.g., four and nine parameters for P-wave propagation in transversely isotropic and orthorhombic media, plus a number of parameters specifying the rotation matrix connecting local and global coordinates. In particular, we parameterize this rotation matrix by one, two, or three Euler angles. In the ray-tracing equations, the slowness vector differentiated with respect to traveltime is related explicitly to the corresponding differentiated slowness vector for non-varying rotation and the cross product of the ray-velocity and slowness vectors. Our formulation is advantageous with respect to user-friendliness, efficiency, and memory usage. Another important aspect is that the anisotropic symmetry properties are conserved when material properties are determined in arbitrary points by linear interpolation, spline function evaluation, or by other means.     

Anisotropy Effects on Microseismic Event Location

Seismic anisotropy in sedimentary environments is significant—microseismic waveforms often show strong shear-wave splitting, with differences reaching 40% between horizontally and vertically-polarized shear-wave velocities. Failure to account for this anisotropy is shown to result in large microseismic event location errors. A method is presented here for determining the five elastic parameters of a homogeneous, vertical transverse-isotropic (VTI) model from calibration shot data. The method can also use data from mining-induced seismic events, which are then simultaneously located. This simple model provides a good fit to arrival times from coal-environment data, and results in dramatic shifts in interpreted event locations.     

First macroseismic map with geological background (composed by L.H. Jeitteles)

The little-known work by Ludwig Heinrich Jeitteles (1830–1883) on the 1858 Žilina strong earthquake in the Carpathian Mountains is commemorated and analysed. Besides his detailed macroseismic analysis of the earthquake — including the construction of isoseismal lines according to local macroseismic reports — Jeitteles was the first to superimpose the macroseismic field over a generalized geological map, which enabled him to describe the earthquake effects in relation to the geological structure of the affected region. These achievements allow us to acknowledge L.H. Jeitteles as one of founding fathers of seismological research of midnineteen century.     

Shaking hazard compatible methodology for probabilistic assessment of permanent ground displacement across earthquake faults

A methodology for probabilistic hazard assessment of permanent displacement across faults caused by earthquake rupture is presented, compatible with region specific models for ground shaking hazard in California, developed earlier by the authors and coworkers. Assessment of permanent dislocations across faults is important for the design and retrofit of highway bridges and tunnels crossing faults, as well as for other lifelines crossing faults, such as aqueducts, water and gas lines, etc. The methodology is illustrated for two strike-slip faults (prototypes of Class A and Class B faults in California), for 50 years exposure. The illustrations show that, for given seismic moment rate, the hazard estimates are quite sensitive to how the seismic moment is distributed over earthquake magnitudes. They also show that the hazard is small even for very small levels of displacement, in contrast to ground shaking hazard, which is due to the fact that only one fault contributes to the hazard and not every event on that fault necessarily affects the site.     

SPH-based numerical investigation of mudflow and other complex fluid flow interactions with structures

The understanding of mudflow–structure interactions and debris–flow structure interactions is of paramount importance for the rational design of technical countermeasures. However, to date, only a limited number of studies have investigated this subject. We propose here a numerical approach to this topic using a 2D vertical numerical model based on the smoothed particle hydrodynamics (SPH) method. First, we will test the capacity of the model to simulate unsteady free-surface flows of water and viscoplastic fluid in comparison to laboratory experiments. Then, we will use it prospectively, based on a series of simulations of Bingham fluid free-surface propagations, to determine the momentum reduction resulting from the presence of a simple obstacle perpendicular to the direction of propagation and to determine the characteristics of stresses applied to this obstacle in terms of peak pressure and evolution over time.