Exposure age chronology of the last glaciation in the eastern Pyrenees

We present a chronology of ice recession in the eastern Pyrenees based on in situ-produced ¹⁰Be data obtained from the Têt paleoglacier complex. The sampling strategy is based on the relative chronology provided by a detailed geomorphological map of glacial landforms. Results indicate that the last maximum ice advance occurred late (i.e., during Marine Isotope Stage 2) compared to the chronology currently established for the rest of the Pyrenees. Despite debatable evidence for a glacial readvance during the Oldest Dryas stade, ice-cap melt-out was rapid, residual cirque glaciers having disappeared by the Allerød interstade. This is consistent both with North Atlantic excursions established by the Greenland ice cores and paleoenvironmental data for the region. The rapid response of the east-Pyrenean ice cap to temperature variations is primarily linked to its small size compared to larger Pyrenean ice fields, to the dry Mediterranean climate, and to topography-related nonlinearities in which a small vertical rise in equilibrium line altitude generates a large change in ice mass. Possible sources of age uncertainty are discussed in the context of sampling design for single-nuclide (¹⁰Be) dating of landform sequences in formerly glaciated landscapes.     

A problem of total glaciations on the Earth in the Late Precambrian

Ideas of global glaciations on the Earth repeatedly emerged in geology since the middle of the 19th century, but they all did not withstand the test of time. The hypothesis of snowball Earth that suggests long-lasted continuous glaciations over the entire land and oceans in the Late Riphean and Vendian became a popular topic of discussions worldwide. These glaciations must last continuously 15 million years or more owing to enormous stability of climate on the “White Earth,” and one can expect their cessation only when CO₂ concentration in the atmosphere is getting by several orders of magnitude higher in the course of volcanic eruptions. However, many sections of the Late Precambrian glacial deposits evidence repeated alternations of glacial and interglacial events of variable rank and oscillations of glaciers. Consequently, liquid water existed on the Earth, hydrological cycle had not been interrupted, and development of phototrophic phytoplankton, the eukaryotic organisms inclusive, was always in progress. These facts and results of the climate mathematical simulation are inconsistent with the concept of long continuous glaciations over the globe and their consequences. Paleomagnetic data represent main starting point of the snowball Earth hypothesis, although they are to a great extent still of insufficient validity for the Precambrian. Equitable criticism of the hypothesis weak sides turns sometimes into denying all the glacial periods of the Late Proterozoic, when tillites are regarded in majority as deposits of subaqueous slumps and debris flows accumulated on walls of oceanic rifts prograding along splitting lines into the Rodinia continent. Doubtless marks of glaciations in the sedimentary succession are regarded therewith as heterochronous indications of local mountain glaciers on risen shoulders of prograding rifts. Widespread occurrence of the Late Precambrian discrete glacial horizons on the platforms means, however, that glaciations of that time have been associated not always with the rifts and consisted of separate glacial events. Glaciogenic horizons comparable in thickness and structure with those of the Phanerozoic Eonothem are also indicative of discrete glacial periods in the Precambrian. Being confined predominantly to the Late Precambrian succession of rifts, these horizons characterize a high burial potential of these structures, whereas outside them glacial horizons of lesser thickness could be easily subjected to erosion. The hypothesis of snowball Earth is inadequately consistent with well-known facts and needs in additional substantiation. There are also grounds to think that oceans have not been completely covered with ice at the time of Precambrian glaciations.     

克里雅河下游沉积物的光释光年龄与晚更新世末以来沙漠的形成

有关塔克拉玛干沙漠演化的年代学数据尚少,本文在地貌认知较少的克里雅河下游沙漠深处的圆沙和喀拉墩一带16处剖面获取了18件河流沉积光释光（OSL）年龄。新测得的年龄数据分布于3.4—44.1 ka。全新世样品多分布于圆沙与喀拉墩干三角洲及其之间的地区,年龄集中在11 ka、8—9 ka、5—6.5 ka、4.6 ka与3.4—3.7 ka。深海氧同位素3阶段（MIS3）样品位置在克里雅河与和田河之间,分布在约38—47 ka前后。末次冰期冰盛期（LGM）末样品分布在通往圆沙古河道的西侧,年龄在14.5 ka前后。根据沉积物样品及年代学数据认为：克里雅河下游曾在MIS3阶段末、LGM末与全新世多次发生洪泛;数次的洪泛事件对克里雅河下游地貌发育产生重要影响;克里雅河下游干三角洲及现代河流西侧的流动沙丘主要形成于全新世,与前人“发育于汉唐以来”的观点不完全一致。克里雅河下游河流沉积发生时间与塔里木盆地周缘山脉冰进冰消有一定对应,暗示气候变化可能间接影响着塔克拉玛干沙漠沙丘的发育。     

Evaluation of ASTER GDEM and SRTM and their suitability in hydraulic modelling of a glacial lake outburst flood in southeast Tibet

The resolution and accuracy of digital elevation models (DEMs) can affect the hydraulic simulation results for predicting the effects of glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs). However, for the Tibetan Plateau, high‐quality DEM data are often not available, leaving researchers with near‐global, freely available DEMs, such as the Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer Global Digital Elevation Model (ASTER GDEM) and the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission data (SRTM) for hydraulic modelling. This study explores the suitability of these two freely available DEMs for hydraulic modelling of GLOFs. Our study focused on the flood plain of a potentially dangerous glacial lake in southeastern Tibet, to evaluate the elevation accuracy of ASTER GDEM and SRTM, and their suitability for hydraulic modelling of GLOFs. The elevation accuracies of ASTER GDEM and SRTM were first validated against field global position system (GPS) survey points, and then evaluated with reference to the relatively high precision of 1:50 000 scale DEM (DEM5) constructed from aerial photography. Moreover, the DEM5, ASTER GDEM and SRTM were used as basic topographic data to simulate peak discharge propagation, as well as flood inundation extent and depth in the Hydrologic Engineering Center's River Analysis System one‐dimensional hydraulic model. Results of the three DEM predictions were compared to evaluate the suitability of ASTER GDEM and SRTM for GLOF hydraulic modelling. Comparisons of ASTER GDEM and SRTM each with DEM5 in the flood plain area show root‐mean‐square errors between the former two as ± 15·4 m and between the latter two as ± 13·5 m. Although SRTM overestimates and ASTER GDEM underestimates valley floor elevations, both DEMs can be used to extract the elevations of required geometric data, i.e. stream centre lines, bank lines and cross sections, for flood modelling. However, small errors still exist in the cross sections that may influence the propagation of peak discharge. The flood inundation extent and mean water depths derived from ASTER GDEM predictions are only 2·2% larger and 2·3‐m deeper than that of the DEM5 predictions, whereas the SRTM yields a flood zone extent 6·8% larger than the DEM5 prediction and a mean water depth 2·4‐m shallower than the DEM5 prediction. The modelling shows that, in the absence of high‐precision DEM data, ASTER GDEM or SRTM DEM can be relied on for simulating extreme GLOFs in southeast Tibet. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A high-resolution quartz OSL chronology of the Talede loess over the past ∼30 ka and its implications for dust accumulation in the Ili Basin,Central Asia

Similar to the loess deposits on the Chinese Loess Plateau (CLP), a reliable chronology plays also an important role in revisiting past climate and environment changes recorded by the loess in Central Asia. Previously, a few luminescence and ¹⁴C ages, mainly covering the last glacial, were obtained for several loess sections in Central Asia, which are often controversial. Until now, there is still a lack of reliable high-resolution chronologies covering the late Pleistocene, especially the Holocene. Here, the fine-grained (4–11 μm) quartz single-aliquot regenerative-dose (SAR) optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating protocol is used to establish a detailed chronology of the uppermost part (∼5 m) of Talede loess in the Ili Basin Central Asia. Conventional tests of the SAR protocol and the general luminescence characteristics indicate that this protocol is suitable for dating the Talede loess. Finally, 15 closely-spaced quartz OSL ages, ranging from 0.72 ± 0.05 to 28.9 ± 2.12 ka and with no reversals, were obtained. Consistent with previous studies in the Ili Basin, two of the three ¹⁴C ages show discrepancy when compared with quartz OSL ages for the Talede loess section. The constructed OSL chronology of the Talede loess reveals that the dust accumulation is rapid during marine isotope stage (MIS) 2, especially during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), and is also continuous during the Holocene, with the dust accumulation rate exhibiting a relatively low level and an increasing trend. Comparison of the dust accumulation at Talede with that at other sites in the Ili Basin indicates that the rapid dust accumulation during the LGM is not universal, and the slow dust accumulation during the Holocene is probably true for the entire Ili Basin. Comparison of different grain sized quartz OSL ages from Central Asian loess show characteristics of both consistency and inconsistency, which needs to be further investigated.     

Influence of glacier advance on the development of the multipart Riffeltal rock glacier,Central Austrian Alps

The multipart Riffeltal rock glacier, located in a tributary valley of the Kaunertal, Tyrol, Austria is investigated to enlarge the knowledge about spatial and temporal development of rock glaciers in and at the margins of pro‐glacial areas and to get a better understanding of glacier–rock glacier interactions. The subject of interest consists of a complex system of two adjacent rock glacier tongues and various superposed lobes with differing ages, origin and root zones, and therefore diverse development. To determine the reasons for their diverging development, the internal structure and permafrost occurrence on and in the surrounding area of the rock glacier were studied by application of geomorphological mapping, geophysical methods and measurement of the basal temperature of the winter snow cover (BTS). Permafrost modelling was performed on the basis of BTS data and land surface parameters derived from a high resolution airborne laser scanning (ALS) digital elevation model (DEM). Additionally, the ALS data were used to measure vertical and horizontal changes of the rock glacier surface between 2006 and 2012. Glacier–rock glacier interactions during and since the Little Ice Age (LIA) are evident for the development of the studied rock glacier. A geomorphic map gives important information about the connection between glacial advance or retreat and permafrost or ground ice occurrence. The combination of all information helps in the analysis of diverse kinematic action of neighbouring rock glacier tongues. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Impacts of post‐glacial rebound on landslide spatial distribution at a regional scale in northern Iceland (Skagafjörður)

In de‐glaciated areas, para‐glaciation (i.e. the conditioning of landscapes by prior glaciation) has often been considered a major predisposing factor in landslide occurrence; its consequences have been particularly well identified at a fine scale (especially on bedrock jointing). Hitherto, the relative impacts of para‐glaciation on hillslope dynamics at a regional scale had nevertheless not been quantified statistically. We examine Skagafjörður area (northern Iceland) where landslides are widespread (at least 108 were mapped in an area of c. 3000 km²). We compare the role of para‐glaciation (debuttressing, influence of post‐glacial rebound) with that of classic factors (topography, lithology, etc.) in landslide occurrence and location, using a spatial analysis based on a chi‐square test. On the one hand, the results highlight that landslides are over‐represented in areas where post‐glacial rebound was at its maximum, with a stronger concentration of landslides in the northern part of the fjord. On the other hand, the distribution of landslides did not show any clear relationship with the pattern of glacial debuttressing. Tschuprow coefficient highlights that the influence of post‐glacial rebound on landslide location is higher than the combined influence of slope gradient, curvature or geological structure. This result is supported by our initial evidence for the timing of landslides in the area: most landslides occurred during the first half of the Holocene, and a period of hillslope instability was initiated when the post‐glacial uplift was at its maximum. Finally, the mechanisms that link post‐glacial rebound and landsliding as well as the geomorphic impacts of landslides, are discussed. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Size,shape and spatial arrangement of mega‐scale glacial lineations from a large and diverse dataset

Mega‐scale glacial lineations (MSGLs) are a characteristic landform on ice stream beds. Solving the puzzle of their formation is key to understanding how ice interacts with its bed and how this, in turn, influences the dynamics of ice streams. However, a comprehensive and detailed characterization of this landform's size, shape and spatial arrangement, which might serve to test and refine formational theories, is largely lacking. This paper presents a detailed morphometric analysis and comparison of 4043 MSGLs from eight palaeo‐ice stream settings: three offshore (Norway and Antarctica), four onshore (Canada), and one from under a modern ice stream in West Antarctica. The length of MSGLs is lower than previously suggested (mode 1000–2000 m; median 2892 m), and they initiate and terminate at various locations on an ice stream bed. Their spatial arrangement reveals a pattern that is characterized by an exceptional parallel conformity (80% of all mapped MSGLs have an azimuth within 5° from the mean values), and a fairly constant lateral spacing (mode 200–300 m; median 330 m), which we interpret as an indication that MSGLs are a spatially self‐organized phenomenon. Results show that size, shape and spatial arrangement of MSGLs are consistent both within and also generally between different ice stream beds. We suggest this results from a common mechanism of formation, which is largely insensitive to local factors. Although the elongation of MSGLs (mode 6–8; median 12.2) is typically higher than features described as drumlins, these values and those of their width (mode 100–200 m; median 268 m) overlap, which suggests the two landforms are part of a morphological continuum and may share a similar origin. We compare their morphometry with explicit predictions made by the groove‐ploughing and rilling instability theories of MSGL formation. Although the latter was most compatible, neither is fully supported by observations. © 2014 The Authors. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.     

Pro‐glacial soil variability and geomorphic activity – the case of three Swiss valleys

Soils in pro‐glacial areas are often approached from a chronosequence viewpoint. In the chronosequence approach, the objective is to derive rates of soil formation from differences in properties between soils of different age. For this reason, in chronosequence studies, soils are sampled in locations that are assumed geomorphically stable and that have different age. As a result, these studies do not necessarily yield a complete view of soil variability in pro‐glacial areas, and may miss important relations between geomorphology and soil development. In this contribution, we present new soil observations from three closely related pro‐glacial areas in Switzerland. These observations were intended to get closer to a complete view of soil variability, and to assess impacts from factors other than time on soil development. About 40 soils were visited in each pro‐glacial valley in a combined design‐convenience sampling scheme and described in the field. Linear modelling was used to assess effects of time and topographic factors on soil properties. The time since glacial retreat turned out to rarely explain more than half of the variation in soil properties, and a linear model combining effects of time and topographic variables explained typically about half of the variation in each pro‐glacial valley. Models differed and were not transferable between valleys. Apparently, time and the present‐day shape of the landscape combined are insufficient information to accurately predict soil properties. Field evidence points to the importance of the geomorphic history and regime of the valleys as a reason for this. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Climate change and recent water level variability in Patagonian proglacial lakes, Argentina

A long series of lakes (~ 150) borders the Patagonian Andes (south of ~ 38°S), most of which are a geomorphologic relict of Pleistocene glaciations. Employing instrumental records, we inspected lake water level departures from seasonal variations in seven proglacial lakes: Lacar, Mascardi, Steffen, Escondido, Puelo, Vinter, and Argentino. Lakes north of ~ 42°S show maximum gage (water) level during austral winter months; lakes between ~ 42° and ~ 45°S appear transitional; the one lake south of ~ 50°S (Argentino) shows maximum water level in early autumn. Most lakes show moderate level fluctuation throughout yearly records and, in general, show heteroscedacity. Furthermore, Hurst exponents reveal persistent behavior (i.e., long-term memory effect) in all water level series. In most lakes there are no trends in deseasonalized mean and maximum water levels (Seasonal Kendall test). Lake Mascardi–Manso River system (mostly fed by melt water from the retreating Manso Glacier) is a contrasting example that shows a decreasing trend during summer months that we ascribe to the also declining ice volume. Harmonic analysis (Fourier and wavelet transform) of deseasonalized mean and maximum water level time series shows interannual and decadal periodicities that we link to the occurrence of El Niño and/or the Antarctic Oscillation. The associated phase spectrum indicates that there is a ~ 13-month lag between ENSO occurrences and its effect on anomalous lake water levels. Increased snow accumulation during austral winters usually follows summertime El Niño events, which normally result in increased melt water volume that occurs with about one-year delay during the following (austral) spring/summer.