岩体断裂粗糙度系数的各向异性研究

本文首次提出了断裂粗糙度系数的各向异性和粗糙度系数尺寸效应的各向异性概念。根据不同成因断裂表面形态的定性分析结果,结合2180个不同方向粗糙度系数实测值的统计结果,系统地阐述了Ⅰ型断裂(节理)和Ⅱ、Ⅲ型断裂(断层)粗糙度系数及粗糙度系数尺寸效应的各向异性规律。     

Modelling The Mean Velocity Profile In The Urban Canopy Layer

A simple model originally derived for meanwind speed profiles in vegetative canopy flows ismodified for application to arrays ofthree-dimensional surface obstacles (cubes), whichcould be representative of a simple urban-typesurface. It is shown that for cube arrays that arenot too densely packed, the predicted exponentialvelocity profile provides an adequate fit to thespatially averaged velocity profile (u(z))within the obstacle canopy. Application of the model to a set of wind-tunnel dataallows for the evaluation of an empirical fittingparameter called the attenuation coefficient. This isrelated to the turbulence length scale, which can befound by manipulating the results of thegradient-diffusion model used to derive the velocityprofile. The results show a reduction of theturbulence length scale with increasing obstaclepacking density. By assuming a linear transition fromthis length scale at the top of the canopy to theclassical Prandtl length scale in the overlyinginertial sublayer, an acceptable model is obtained forthe full velocity profile within simple obstaclearrays, from the ground up to the overlyingsemi-logarithmic region.     

A Simple Method of Estimating Scalar Fluxes Over Forests

A simple aerodynamic-variance method is proposed to fill gaps in continuous CO₂ flux measurements in rainy conditions, when open-path analysers do not function. The method requires turbulent conditions (friction velocity greater than 0.1 ms^–1), and uses measurements of mean wind speed, and standard deviations of temperature and CO₂ concentration fluctuations to complement, and at times replace, eddy-covariance measurements of friction velocity, sensible heat flux and CO₂ flux. Friction velocity is estimated from the mean wind speed with a flux-gradient relationship modified for the roughness sublayer. Since normalised standard deviations do not follow Monin-Obukhov similarity theory in the roughness sublayer, a simple classification scheme according to the scalar turbulence scale was used. This scheme is shown to produce sensible heat and CO₂ flux estimates that are well correlated with the measured values.     

The Adaptation of the Atmospheric Boundary Layer to a Change in Surface Roughness

The adaptation of the atmospheric boundary layer to a change in the underlying surface roughness is an interesting problem and hence much research, theoretical, experimental, and numerical, has been undertaken. Within the atmospheric boundary layer an accurate numerical model for the turbulent properties of the atmospheric boundary layer needs to be implemented if physically realistic results are to be obtained. Here, the adaptation of the atmospheric boundary layer to a change in surface roughness is investigated using a first-order turbulence closure model, a one-and-a-half-order turbulence closure model and a second-order turbulence closure model. Perturbations to the geostrophic wind and the pressure gradients are included and it is shown that the second-order turbulence closure model, namely the standard k - model, is inferior to a lower-order closure model if a modification to limit the turbulent eddy size within the atmospheric boundary layer is not included within the model.     

黄土高原半干旱草地近地层湍流温湿特征及总体输送系数

利用兰州大学半干旱气候与环境观测站(简称SACOL站)2008年夏季晴天近地层湍流观测资料,分析了SACOL站近地层湍流温、湿统计特征,确定了大气动力学和热力学粗糙度长度,讨论了总体输送系数随大气稳定度的变化规律。结果表明,大气层结不稳定条件下,无量纲温度和比湿脉动方差与稳定度Z/L之间均满足-1/3次规律;大气层结稳定条件下,温湿脉动方差总体趋势是随大气稳定度增加而减小。水汽通量全天大于零,最大值为0.063 g·m-2·s-1,地表日平均蒸发量为1.9 mm。中性条件下,黄土高原半干旱草地动力学粗糙度长度为6.6×10-3m,热力学粗糙度为1.85×10-5m。大气层结不稳定条件下,CD平均值为4.4×10-3,CH平均值为3.9×10-3;中性条件下,CD和CH平均值分别为4.2×10-3和2.8×10-3;层结稳定条件下,CD平均值为3.1×10-3,CH平均值为2.1×10-3,表明总体输送系数随稳定度的增大而减小。     

Interpretation of Crown Radiation Temperatures of a Dense Douglas fir Forest with Similarity Theory

Infrared crown radiation temperatures as observed over a dense Douglas fir forest are analyzed in the context of similarity theory and the concept of transport resistances. As such we obtain a rather high value of the roughness length for heat, which is about equal to the roughness length for momentum. This value can be explained by the more efficient transport of heat relative to momentum in the roughness sublayer of the forest. Correcting for this effect we arrive at the classic value for homogeneous terrain of about 0.1 times the roughness length for momentum. For unstable cases the presence of enhanced mixing of heat in the roughness sublayer leads to a modified integral stability function for the dimensionless potential temperature difference between the surface and the top of the roughness sublayer. The observations give some evidence for this different stability behaviour. The analysis suggests that during daytime the radiative surface temperature and the aerodynamic surface temperature are not significantly different when used to estimate fluxes. Daytime trunk space air temperature is satisfactory parameterized with the concept of gusts and with surface renewal analysis. As such it is related to the sensible heat flux and the storage heat flux. Night time radiation temperatures at times strongly deviate from the expected behaviour based on similarity theory and the roughness length for heat, suggesting that the concept of a single surface temperature is too simple for such cases.     

Diurnal Variations of Thermal Roughness Height over a Grassland

The thermal roughness height associated with the surface radiation temperature has been previously found to vary between different surface types. This study finds that the thermal roughness height varies diurnally even over a homogeneous senescent grassland. The corresponding roughness length for momentum is relatively constant.Both the aerodynamic temperature and the surface radiation temperature are found to be closely related to the air temperature in the middle of the grass canopy. However, the aerodynamic temperature is strongly influenced by the horizontally integrated heat transfer, while the surface radiation temperature represents the integrated thermal emission through the grass depth within the field of view of the radiometer. The aerodynamic temperature is less sensitive to variations and measurement errors in sensible heat flux, wind speed, and air temperature than the thermal roughness height. We find that formulating the aerodynamic temperature in terms of the surface radiation temperature is better posed for use in the bulk formula than using the surface radiation temperature directly and adjusting the thermal roughness length.     

Turbulence Observations Above a Smooth Melting Surface on the Greenland Ice Sheet

Measurements of profiles and turbulent fluxes havebeen made over a smooth, melting surface on thesouthwestern part of the Greenland ice sheet in July1991. For a reference height of 0.8 m, and fluxmeasurements at 4 m and 13 m, the best values for theroughness lengths are 3 × 10-4 m for wind speed,2 × 10-6 m for temperature, and 5 × 10-4 mfor moisture. The uncertainty in the correspondingexchange coefficients is about 10%. The roughnesslength for temperature (zT) is much smaller than expectedfrom theory, as was also found in a number of earlierinvestigations. The possibility is considered thatabsorption of shortwave radiation by aerosol particlesaccumulating near the surface lowers thezT values. Consequently, zT using lower measurementheights should probably be close to z0.However, evidence for this remains rather indirect.Further, it is shown that reliable results for thesensible heat flux can be obtained using the productof the observed standard deviation for temperature fluctuationsand wind speed.     

A Wind-Tunnel Investigation of Wind-Turbine Wakes: Boundary-Layer Turbulence Effects

Wind-tunnel experiments were performed to study turbulence in the wake of a model wind turbine placed in a boundary layer developed over rough and smooth surfaces. Hot-wire anemometry was used to characterize the cross-sectional distribution of mean velocity, turbulence intensity and kinematic shear stress at different locations downwind of the turbine for both surface roughness cases. Special emphasis was placed on the spatial distribution of the velocity deficit and the turbulence intensity, which are important factors affecting turbine power generation and fatigue loads in wind energy parks. Non-axisymmetric behaviour of the wake is observed over both roughness types in response to the non-uniform incoming boundary-layer flow and the effect of the surface. Nonetheless, the velocity deficit with respect to the incoming velocity profile is nearly axisymmetric, except near the ground in the far wake where the wake interacts with the surface. It is found that the wind turbine induces a large enhancement of turbulence levels (positive added turbulence intensity) in the upper part of the wake. This is due to the effect of relatively large velocity fluctuations associated with helicoidal tip vortices near the wake edge, where the mean shear is strong. In the lower part of the wake, the mean shear and turbulence intensity are reduced with respect to the incoming flow. The non-axisymmetry of the turbulence intensity distribution of the wake is found to be stronger over the rough surface, where the incoming flow is less uniform at the turbine level. In the far wake the added turbulent intensity, its positive and negative contributions and its local maximum decay as a power law of downwind distance (with an exponent ranging from −0.3 to −0.5 for the rough surface, and with a wider variation for the smooth surface). Nevertheless, the effect of the turbine on the velocity defect and added turbulence intensity is not negligible even in the very far wake, at a distance of fifteen times the rotor diameter.