Flood hydrology and geomorphic effectiveness in the central Appalachians

This paper compares hydrologic records and geomorphic effects of several historic floods in the central Appalachian region of the eastern United States. The most recent of these, occurring in November 1985, was the largest ever recorded in West Virginia, with peak discharges exceeding the estimated 500-year discharge at eight of eleven stations in the South Branch Potomac River and Cheat River basins. Geomorphic effects on valley floors included some of the most severe and widespread floodplain erosion ever documented and exceeded anything seen in previous floods, even though comparable or greater rainfall and unit discharge have been observed several times in the region over the past 50 years. Comparison of discharge-drainage area plots suggests that the intensity and spatial scale of the November 1985 flood were optimal for erosion of valley floors along the three forks of the South Branch Potomac River. However, when a larger geographic area is considered, rainfall totals and discharge-drainage area relationships are insufficient predictors of geomorphic effectiveness for valley floors at drainage areas of 250 to 2500 km². Unit stream power was calculated for the largest recorded flood discharge at 46 stations in the central Appalachians. Maximum values of unit stream power are developed in bedrock canyons, where the boundaries are resistant to erosion and the flow cross-section cannot adjust its width to accommodate extreme discharges. The largest value was 2570 W m^?2; record discharge at most stations was associated with unit stream power values less than 300 W m^?2, but more stations exceeded this value in the November 1985 flood than in the other floods that were analysed. Unit stream power at indirect discharge measurement sites near areas experiencing severe erosion in this and other central Appalachian floods generally exceeded 300 W m^?2; reach-average values of 200-500 W m^?2 were calculated for valleys where erosion damage was most widespread. Despite these general trends, unit stream power is not a reliable predictor of geomorphic change for individual sites. Improved understanding of flood impacts will require more detailed investigation of interactions between local site characteristics and patterns of flood flow over the valley floor.     

Sediment transport by burrowing mammals,Marin County,California

Field observations suggest that burrowing activity is the primary mode of sediment transport currently active in a small grassland drainage basin in Marin County, California. Spatial concentrations of the 1150 gopher mounds surveyed vary from 0-16 mounds m^?2 on interfluves to 0.32 mounds m^?2 on sideslopes and in the topographic hollow, with localized concentrations of up to 2.88 mounds m^?2 on the margins of the colluvial deposit. Simple models of sediment transport by burrowing activity yield estimates of between 0.91 and 2.33 cm³ cm^?1 yr^?1 for the basin as a whole, with absolute minimum and maximum rates of 0.48 and 631 cm³ cm^?1 yr^?1. These values are similar to those previously estimated for this area (Lehre, 1982) and are nearly an order-of-magnitude less than average long-term sediment transport rates at the same site (Reneau, 1988).     

Estimation of soil loss at a regional scale based on plot measurements—some critical considerations

The paper is prompted by apparent deficiencies in the design of plot studies in regional erosion surveys. The principal shortcomings of observational erosion research have been poor sampling design and inadequate analyses of data. The paper identifies various sources of bias which must be taken into account before plot data can be extrapolated to land units in a regional survey. Judging from soil loss data of a case-study in the Ardèche rangelands one may conclude that even accurate plot measurements can still be rather a rough basis for regional erosion assessment. Finally, the paper highlights strategies that might be used to improve erosion sampling.     

BED SHEAR IN EVOLVING SCOUR AT A CYLINDER:A THEORETICAL APPROACH

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An erosion criterion for gravel-bed rivers

A theoretically-based erosion criterion is developed for gravel-bed rivers which incorporates the effect of both grain geometry and turbulent velocity fluctuations. It is derived from a balance of instantaneous drag, lift, and gravity forces operating on individual grains and is calculated for spherical grains arranged in three distinct geometries. To accommodate the temporal variation in bed shear stress, the model includes a stochastic element based on the characteristics of turbulence derived from the flume evidence of McQuivey (1973a, b). In terms of the Shields parameter, results show reasonable agreement with the range of observations quoted from the field and with the experimental data of Fenton and Abbott (1977). Finally, the argument is generalized to cover applications in the wider context of field conditions including a range of grain sizes and flow conditions.     

Small channels: Their experimental formation,nature, and significance

The manner in which small channels are generated, from plane beds beneath sheet flows, has been experimentally elucidated. On plane, erodible, sand beds, the transition from thin, supercritical sheet flows to the channelled condition was studied over ranges of discharge, slope, and temperature. Secondary flow of the second kind, its action facilitated by steep vertical velocity gradients in the primary flows, caused sheet-flow instability. Along junctions between neighbouring secondary cells, both either raised or lowered elements of the primary flow. In the latter case, fast surface water was lowered to the bed, causing relatively intense, local, longitudinal scour. Dislodged grains were moved divergently to either side, leaving straight, central trenches. Development of positive feedback between cells and trenches led to rapid enlargement of the latter and concomitant growth of paired levees. The resulting structures, ‘protochannels’, were themselves ephemeral, developing two types of instability associated with secondary flow of the first kind. Firstly, small deviations from bilateral symmetry were enhanced, causing evolution into meandering channels. Secondly, headcutting led to multiple tributary development and, at resulting confluences, the action of strong pairs of secondary cells led to the development of braiding channels. Because they are shortlived, protochannels are but rarely seen in nature. Their seeding is markedly temperature-sensitive, reflecting their frictional origin. The erosive power of shallow overland flow largely depends on flow-energy concentration by secondary flow, firstly into channels, then within the channels themselves. Suppression of secondary flow, as by intense raindrop bombardment, can stabilize sheet flows. In deeper water, the effects of secondary flow appear relatively less dramatic. However, even if such motion is weak, bedload divergence from attachment lines can favour entrainment locally and thus affect bed geometry. Analogy between our results and river behaviour appears close and. on continental shelves where water must often flow as sheets, structures resembling giant protochannels evidently persist.     

Long-term erosion on granitic roadcuts based on exposed tree roots

Exposed roots were used to estimate soil and bedrock erosion on the cut slopes of a 45-year-old road constructed in granitic soils of the Idaho Batholith. The original roadcut surface was defined by projecting a straight line from the toe of the cut past the end of the exposed root to the intersection of a straight line projected along the surface of the hillslope. A cross-sectioning technique was then used to determine erosion to the present roadcut surface. A total of 41 exposed root sites were used to estimate erosion on a 1350 m-long section of road. Average erosion was 1·0 and 1·1 cm/year for soil and bedrock respectively. Buttressing by tree roots caused lower erosion rates for soil as compared to bedrock. Both soil and bedrock erosion rates showed statistically significant correlations with the gradients of the original cut slope. The bedrock erosion data provide a reasonable estimate of the disintegration rate of exposed granitic bedrock exhibiting the weathering and fracturing properties common to this area. The road is located in a study watershed where long-term sediment yield data are available. Sediment data from adjacent study watersheds with no roads were compared to sediment data from the roaded watershed to estimate the long-term increase in sediment yield caused by the road. The increase amounts to about 2·4 m³/year. This figure, compared to the average annual on-site road erosion, provides an erosion to sediment delivery ratio of less than 10 per cent. Based on study results, road construction and maintenance practices are suggested for helping reduce roadcut erosion.     

PRINCIPLES OF RIVER TRAINING AND MANAGEMENT

River regulation and river training have been performed for various purposes and negative effects have been shown in numerous cases. In some cases the negative effects are so serious that humans have to consider to "renaturalize" the regulated rivers. Only by using the strategy of integrated river management the diverse river uses and natural fluvial processes and ecological systems may be harmonized. Based on analysis of case studies and data collected from literatures this paper presents the concept of integrated river management and four principles of river training. The integrated river management comprises: 1) taking the watershed, upper stream basin including the tributaries, middle and lower reaches and the estuary as an integrated entity in the planning, design and management; and 2) mitigating or controlling the negative impacts on hydrology, erosion and sedimentation, fluvial processes, land use and river use, environment and ecology while in achieving economic benefit from water resources development, flood safety management and hydropower exploitation. River training and management should be in accordance with the four principles: 1) extending the duration of river water flowing on the continent, which may be achieved by extending the river course or reducing the flow velocity; 2) controlling various patterns of erosions and reducing the sediment transportation in the rivers; 3) increasing the diversity of habitat and enhancing the connectivity between the river and riparian waters; and 4) restoring natural landscapes.     

Calibration of the high-pressure cohesive strength meter (CSM)

Coastal erosion is an immense economic and social problem that has been receiving increased attention in recent years. A number of devices have been developed to determine the sediment stability in coastal areas: laboratory and field flumes; a range of different erosion devices; shear vanes and fall cone penetrometers. The cohesive strength meter (CSM) erosion device was developed to determine in situ the temporal and spatial variations in the erosion threshold of muddy intertidal sediments. Technological developments have enabled considerable improvements to be made to the original design over the last 15 years.     

黄土丘陵沟壑区小流域降雨入渗产流点面转化

在充分考虑小流域土壤入渗速率点面转化及地表结皮等影响因素在内的基础上 ,提出了小流域土壤入渗速率点面转化公式 :fm=fn×Sn/S×an×bn。以纸坊沟小流域为例 ,将实测的流域土壤入渗速率值 (点渗值 )利用上式进行转化 (面渗值 ) ,并与流域径流出口观测站由降雨径流观测值根据水量平衡原理推算出的面渗值进行对比 ,平均相对误差仅为 2 .42 %。初步得出流域土壤面渗率与不同治理度、年内 5～ 9月降雨总量间的单因子和复合因子高精度回归方程 ,为流域综合治理后的水资源量变化趋势提供一条量化途径