Ecosystem-based marine spatial management: Review of concepts, policies, tools, and critical issues

Conventional sectoral management and piecemeal governance are considered less and less appropriate in pursuit of sustainable development. Ecosystem based marine spatial management (EB-MSM) is an approach that recognizes the full array of interactions within an ecosystem, including human uses, rather than considering single issues, species, or ecosystem services in isolation. Marine spatial planning and ocean zoning are emerging concepts that can support EB-MSM. EB-MSM is driven by high-level goals that managers aim to achieve through the implementation of measures. High-level goals and objectives need to be translated into more operational objectives before specific targets, limits and measures can be elaborated.Monitoring, evaluation and adaptation are necessary to ensure that marine management measures are both effective and efficient. Solid monitoring frameworks are the foundation of adaptive management, as they provide the necessary information to evaluate performance and the effectiveness of management actions. Marine protected areas (MPAs) - possibly set up in networks - constitute a key component in EB-MSM policies and practises and have been applied as a cornerstone in conservation of marine biodiversity, management of fish populations, development of coastal tourism, etc. Moreover, MPA experiences have provided methods and concepts (such as zoning) to a wider EB-MSM context. The assignment of values to biophysical features of the marine environment allows the direct assessment of related management choices and may assist EB-MSM.A range of monetary valuation techniques have been proposed to reduce attributes of goods and services to a single metric. However, in the marine environment such an approach is often over simplistic, and thus less reductive techniques may be necessary. Rather than producing a single metric, the results of non-monetary assessments guide policy allowing weight to be given as necessary to potential areas of conflict and consensus.Strategies to take into account climate change effects and geohazard risks in EB-MSM have been applied or proposed worldwide. EB-MSM regimes must be alert to such risks and flexible to account for changes.     

Contrasting local retention and cross-shore transports of the East Australian Current and the Leeuwin Current and their relative influences on the life histories of small pelagic fishes

Transport between shelf and offshore environments supports a significant proportion of ocean primary productivity and is critical to the life cycle of many marine species. While fundamental differences in the underlying dynamics of eastern and western boundary currents have been recognized and studied for more than half a century, the implications for physical dispersal rates have received much less attention. In this study we explore how Australia’s two major boundary current systems, the East Australian Current and the Leeuwin Current, differ in their local retention and cross-shore transports in the upper water column and how these differences favor contrasting life histories of small pelagic fishes. The results suggest that the East Australian Current forms a partial barrier to onshore transport, but is effective in entraining shelf waters and transporting them offshore, particularly in the region where the current separates from the coast. Blue mackerel (Scomber australasicus) spawn on the outer-shelf in this separation region and may thereby maximize the dispersion of eggs and larvae in the mainly oligotrophic waters of the southern Coral Sea. In contrast, the Leeuwin Current system promotes onshore transport through the combined effects of mean onshore flow and eddy-induced mixing. In the Great Australian Bight, sardine (Sardinops sagax) and anchovy (Engraulis australis) may exploit the high coastal retention of the Leeuwin Current system by spawning on the inner-shelf during summer when the current is weakest and winds assist retention and enhance production through local upwelling.     

The cold-core eddy and strong upwelling off the coast of New South Wales in early 2007

During the Austral summer of 2006-07 a series of extreme oceanic events occurred in the Tasman Sea. Following a series of strong wind-driven upwelling events, an intense cold-core eddy developed off Sydney, Australia. A data-assimilating, eddy-resolving ocean model is used to create a three-dimensional time-varying reanalysis of these events. The reanalysis indicates that the cold anomalies associated with the upwellings were in excess of −5 °C near the coast, where sea level decreased by as much as 0.2 m. The reanalysed three-dimensional structure of the cold-core eddy shows the eddy "leaning" to the west-north-west, in towards the continental shelf. The diameter of the eddy is about 100 km and the sea-level anomaly at the eddy centre peaks at around −1 m, with an associated sub-surface temperature anomaly in excess of −8 °C at 200 m depth, corresponding to an upward isotherm excursion of 600 m. The circulation around the cyclonic eddy is ageostrophic, with upwelling in the southern sector of the eddy (where flow is onshore and climbing the continental slope) and downwelling in the northern sector (where flow is descending off the slope). Three-dimensional trajectories of water parcels around the eddy involve 50-100-m vertical excursions. Based on the reanalysed circulation and composite satellite images of Chlorophyll-a, we hypothesise that the circulation around the eddy led to significant nutrient enrichment in the euphotic zone around the perimeter of the eddy.     

Characteristic ichthyoplankton taxa in the separation zone of the East Australian Current: Larval assemblages as tracers of coastal mixing

Ichthyoplankton assemblages were compared between regions dominated by the oligotrophic East Australian Current (EAC) and the inner-shelf waters off southeastern Australia, to determine if the early life history of fish was related to the separation of the EAC from the coast, producing different water masses as well as characteristic taxa. Samples were collected at the surface and in sub-surface waters, at 50 and 100 m isobath stations, during two summer research voyages in November 1998 and January 1999. On both voyages the study region was characterized by coastal and EAC waters in the north (∼31°S), and in the south by topographically induced upwelling (∼31°S), associated with narrowing of the continental shelf and separation of the EAC from the coast. Among the 111 families of larval fish, we observed distinctive assemblages of ichthyoplankton associated with the two different water masses. A greater abundance of the Carangidae, Labridae, Lutjanidae, Microcanthidae, Myctophidae and Scombridae was associated with the nutrient poor EAC water mass, while the Callionymidae, Clupeidae, Platycephalidae and Sillaginidae were mostly found in the cooler and/or fresher inner-shelf water mass. We assessed these patterns with opportunistic samples from an unusual, wind-driven upwelling event in the north (∼31°S) earlier in the November voyage. The relative abundance of these 10 characteristic families distinguished this wind-driven upwelling event from the subsequent relaxation and predominance of the EAC assemblage at this location just 6 d later. Distinctive and abundant families such as larval clupeids, relative to larval carangids, could be a useful marker of inner-shelf, EAC and mixed water masses in the absence of robust hydrographic data. This and related studies indicate contrast in early life histories of Sardinops sagax and Trachurus spp., which appear to spawn respectively in the inner-shelf and outer-shelf waters. The post-flexion stages of S. sagax predominate in the outer-shelf and Tasman Front, while post-flexion Trachurus spp. predominate in inner-shelf water masses.     

电流模全波精密整流器

简要回顾了全波整流器的新进展。介绍了一种实现全波整流的新方法。应用三个电流传送器（ＣＣⅡ）和两个快速二极管，构成了一种新型电流模全波精密整流器。实验结果证明，这种新型电流模整流器的工作原理是正确的。     

Observed residual currents off the Changjiang （Yangtze） Rivermouth in summertime of 1959 and 1982

Data taken in two large scale ocean observations in China in summer 1959 and 1982 were used to analyze the residual current off the Changjiang (Yangtze) River mouth. The currents at surface off the mouth in July 1959 and 1982 flow northeastward and eastward due to the river discharge, the current speed was larger in 1982 than in 1959. All the bottom currents flow landward due to baroclinic effect. The surface current was controlled by the river runoff and the Taiwan Warm Current (TWC). A return current at surface off the mouth was observed in September 1959. In general, the bottom currents were controlled by the TWC in most study area in addition to the runoff near the mouth. Although driven by 3-D model with the monthly averaged forces (river discharge, wind stress, baroclinic effect, open boundary water volume flux and tidal mixing) in August, the simulated circulations were basically consistent with the observed ones with episodic time manner.     

南极绕极流的表层环流结构和能量分布特征

利用历史的表面漂流浮标资料研究了南极绕极流的平均结构、变化规律和能量特征。强劲的南极绕极流沿着纬向从西向东流动,并伴随着复杂多变的海洋锋面,主导着整个南大洋的海洋环流系统。首先,标准方差椭圆表明,阿加勒斯回流和东澳大利亚暖流是南极绕极流重要的流量补充。在南半球的冬季,南极绕极流的流速随着西风的增强而增强。在南极绕极流经向摆动的影响下,流核上的经向流速比纬向流速具有更加不稳定的特征。另外,南极绕极流从非洲南部开始自西向东逐渐减弱。其次,从能量的角度讨论了南极绕极流的细节特征。平均动能、扰动动能及其均方根在流核区域都很强,扰动动能和平均动能比值的趋势恰恰相反,强(弱)能量分布区域的涡旋耗散反而比较弱(强)。除了扰动动能和平均动能的比值之外,所有的能量形式都呈现了从西向东减弱的趋势。涡动耗散对南大洋北部的平均动能影响更大。     

Velocity Mapping Toolbox (VMT): a processing and visualization suite for moving‐vessel ADCP measurements

The use of acoustic Doppler current profilers (ADCP) for discharge measurements and three‐dimensional flow mapping has increased rapidly in recent years and has been primarily driven by advances in acoustic technology and signal processing. Recent research has developed a variety of methods for processing data obtained from a range of ADCP deployments and this paper builds on this progress by describing new software for processing and visualizing ADCP data collected along transects in rivers or other bodies of water. The new utility, the Velocity Mapping Toolbox (VMT), allows rapid processing (vector rotation, projection, averaging and smoothing), visualization (planform and cross‐section vector and contouring), and analysis of a range of ADCP‐derived datasets. The paper documents the data processing routines in the toolbox and presents a set of diverse examples that demonstrate its capabilities. The toolbox is applicable to the analysis of ADCP data collected in a wide range of aquatic environments and is made available as open‐source code along with this publication. Published 2012. This article is a U.S. Government work and is in the public domain in the USA.     

斯里兰卡以东海域涡旋偶极子的生成与维持机制

斯里兰卡岛以东海域在西南季风期间常会出现一对低频涡旋偶极子（即斯里兰卡穹顶气旋涡和反气旋涡）,对当地的海洋生态系统及气候有着重要影响。基于（1/12）°分辨率的混合坐标海洋模式（Hybrid Coordinate Oceanic Model,HYCOM）再分析资料以及多尺度子空间变换（MWT）和基于MWT的正则传输理论等方法,分析了它们的生成发展机制。结果发现这2个涡旋发展所需能量最终都来源于海表风应力做功,但具体可取3条完全不同的路径：①风应力直接驱动涡旋;②风应力驱动背景场的西南季风流,其后西南季风流发生正压不稳定以提供涡旋所需的涡动能;③西南季风流通过风应力做功获得的动能转换为有效位能,其后通过斜压不稳定给涡旋提供位能。涡旋最终衰亡的主要原因包括风应力对涡旋做功的减少、西南季风流正压不稳定的减弱、涡旋的能量频散以及低频涡向更高频扰动的正向能量级串。     

东印度沿岸流的季节变化及其热盐输运

基于卫星高度计数据、模式数据和同化资料揭示了东印度沿岸流(East India Coastal Current, EICC)年周期上的时空分布特征, 并探讨了其可能的影响机制及热盐输运。在年周期上EICC呈现3种分布状态, 受季风影响, 在东北季风前期(10—12月)和后期(2—5月)为一致的南向(北向)流动; 而6—8月EICC呈3段式分布, 与另外两个时间段明显不同, 表现为9°N以南、16°N以北区域的南向流动和9°—16°N区域的北向流动。前人研究认为印度东海岸的局地风应力是EICC的主要机制, 本研究发现除局地风应力外, 来自孟加拉湾中部的艾克曼抽吸(Ekman Pumping)在全年也发挥着重要作用, 并在2—5月(10—12月)驱动EICC的北向(南向)流动, 而局地风应力则在10—12月有利于EICC的南向流动。EICC是孟加拉湾低盐水向赤道东印度洋和阿拉伯海输运的一个因素, 在海盆间的热盐交换上发挥着重要作用。EICC的热输运在6—12月(2—5月)有利于(不利于)湾内温度的升高; 盐输运则在全年都有利于孟加拉湾内盐度的增加。此外, EICC的一致南向(北向)流动以及3段式结构促进了湾内热盐的再分配, 对于维持北印度洋的热量和盐度收支平衡具有重要作用。