Invariance and scaling properties in the distributions of contributing area and energy in drainage basins

The cumulative probability distributions for stream order, stream length, contributing area, and energy dissipation per unit length of channel are derived, for an ordered drainage system, from Horton's laws of network composition. It is shown how these distributions can be related to the fractal nature of single rivers and river networks. Finally, it is shown that the structure proposed here for these probability distributions is able to fit the observed frequency distributions, and their deviations from straight lines in a log-log plot.     

The solubility of iron sulphides in synthetic and natural waters at ambient temperature

A critical evaluation of literature values for the solubility products, K _sp ^NBS = [Fe²⁺][HS^–] Fe²⁺ HS^– (H _NBS ⁺ )^–1, of various iron sulphide phases results in consensus values for the pKs of 2.95 ± 0.1 for amorphous ferrous sulphide, 3.6 ± 0.2 for mackinawite, 4.4 ± 0.1 for greigite, 5.1 ± 0.1 for pyrrhotite, 5.25 ± 0.2 for troilite and 16.4 ± 1.2 for pyrite.Where the analogous ion activity products have been measured in anoxic freshwaters in which there is evidence for the presence of solid phase FeS, the values lie within the range of 2.6–3.22, indicating that amorphous iron sulphide is the controlling phase. The single value for a groundwater of 2.65 (2.98 considering carbonate complexation) agrees. In seawater four values range between 3.85 to 4.2, indicating that mackinawite or greigite may be the controlling phase. The single low value of 2.94 is in a situation where particularly high fluxes of Fe (II) and S (–II) may result in the preferential precipitation of amorphous iron sulphide. Formation of framboidal pyrite in these sulphidic environments may occur in micro-niches and does not appear to influence bulk concentrations. Calculations show that the formation of Fe₂S₂ species probably accounts for very little of the iron or sulphide in most natural waters. Previously reported stability constants for the formation of Fe (HS)₂ and (Fe (HS)₃)^– are shown to be suspect, and these species are also thought to be negligible in natural waters. In completely anoxic pore waters polysulphides also have a negligible effect on speciation, but in tidal sediments they may reach appreciable concentrations and lead to the direct formation of pyrite. Concentrations of iron and sulphide in pore waters can be controlled by the more soluble iron sulphide phase. The change in the IAP with depth within the sediment may reflect ageing of the solid phase or a greater flux of Fe (II) and S (–II) nearer the sediment surface. This possible kinetic influence on the value of IAPs has implications for their use in geochemical studies involving phase formation.     

Quaternary fault segmentation and interaction in the epicentral area of the 1561 earthquake (Mw = 6.4), Vallo di Diano, southern Apennines, Italy

The main structural characteristics of the Caggiano and Polla faults, exposed in the epicentral area of the 1561 earthquake (Mw = 6.4), southern Italy, have been investigated in detail to assess their spatial and temporal properties, and to evaluate their seismogenic potential. These right stepping normal faults show an overlap of about 7 km and an across strike separation of about 4 km. The geometric relationships between the Caggiano and Polla faults, but also the displacement distribution along each fault, demonstrate that they have been strongly interacting throughout the Pleistocene. Nevertheless, geological evidence of Holocene tectonic activity was mainly recognized along the Caggiano Fault (faulted late glacial deposits) and in the southernmost part of the Polla Fault (faulted deposits of probably Late Pleistocene age). This suggests that the Caggiano Fault can be considered as the most tectonically active fault in the Vallo di Diano Fault System. By calculating Coulomb stress changes, we have constrained modes of mechanical interactions between the two faults in a scenario compatible with the 1561 earthquake. This approach allows us to argue that both the Caggiano and the Polla Faults are probably linked at depth, and part of the same seismogenic structure which may be potentially responsible for composite ruptures with magnitude ≥ 6.5.     

Revised age of proximal deposits in the Zagros foreland basin and implications for Cenozoic evolution of the High Zagros

The regionally extensive, coarse-grained Bakhtiyari Formation represents the youngest synorogenic fill in the Zagros foreland basin of Iran. The Bakhtiyari is present throughout the Zagros fold-thrust belt and consists of conglomerate with subordinate sandstone and marl. The formation is up to 3000 m thick and was deposited in foredeep and wedge-top depocenters flanked by fold-thrust structures. Although the Bakhtiyari concordantly overlies Miocene deposits in foreland regions, an angular unconformity above tilted Paleozoic to Miocene rocks is expressed in the hinterland (High Zagros).

The Bakhtiyari Formation has been widely considered to be a regional sheet of Pliocene–Pleistocene conglomerate deposited during and after major late Miocene–Pliocene shortening. It is further believed that rapid fold growth and Bakhtiyari deposition commenced simultaneously across the fold-thrust belt, with limited migration from hinterland (NE) to foreland (SW). Thus, the Bakhtiyari is generally interpreted as an unmistakable time indicator for shortening and surface uplift across the Zagros. However, new structural and stratigraphic data show that the most-proximal Bakhtiyari exposures, in the High Zagros south of Shahr-kord, were deposited during the early Miocene and probably Oligocene. In this locality, a coarse-grained Bakhtiyari succession several hundred meters thick contains gray marl, limestone, and sandstone with diagnostic marine pelecypod, gastropod, coral, and coralline algae fossils. Foraminiferal and palynological species indicate deposition during early Miocene time. However, the lower Miocene marine interval lies in angular unconformity above ~ 150 m of Bakhtiyari conglomerate that, in turn, unconformably caps an Oligocene marine sequence. These relationships attest to syndepositional deformation and suggest that the oldest Bakhtiyari conglomerate could be Oligocene in age.

The new age information constrains the timing of initial foreland-basin development and proximal Bakhtiyari deposition in the Zagros hinterland. These findings reveal that structural evolution of the High Zagros was underway by early Miocene and probably Oligocene time, earlier than commonly envisioned. The age of the Bakhtiyari Formation in the High Zagros contrasts significantly with the Pliocene–Quaternary Bakhtiyari deposits near the modern deformation front, suggesting a long-term (> 20 Myr) advance of deformation toward the foreland.     

Morphological analysis of the drainage system in the Eastern Alps

We study the morphology of the major rivers draining the Eastern Alps to test whether the active tectonics of this part of the orogen is reflected in the shape of channel profiles of the river network. In our approach we compare channel profiles measured from digital elevation models with numerically modelled channel profiles using a stream power approach. It is shown that regions of high stream power coincide largely with regions of highest topography and largest uplift rates, while the forelands and the Pannonian Basin are characterised by a significantly lower stream power. From stream power modelling we conclude that there is young uplift at the very east of the Eastern Alps, in the Bohemian Massif and in the Pohorje Range. The impact of the Pleistocene glaciations is explored by comparing properties of rivers that drain in proximal and distal positions relative to the ice sheet during the last glacial maximum. Our analysis shows that most knick points, wind gaps and other non-equilibrium features of catchments covered by ice during the last glaciations (Salzach, Enns) can be correlated with glacial processes. In contrast the ice free catchments of the Mur and Drava are characterized by channels in morphological equilibrium at the first approximation and are showing only weak evidence of the strong tectonic activity within these catchments. Finally, the channel profiles of the Adige and the divide between the upper Rhine and Danube catchments differ significantly from the other catchments. We relate this to the fact that the Adige and the Rhine respond to different base levels from the remainder of the Eastern Alps: The Adige may preserve a record from the Messininan base level change and the Rhine is subject to the base level lowering in the Rhine Graben.     

沉积盆地有机质自由基热演化特征及其作为古温标的探索

恢复沉积盆地热历史的方法主要有古地温指标法和动力学模拟法两类.古温标法中最常用的为有机质成熟度和矿物裂变径迹,动力学模拟法中最常用的是盆地的拉张模型和挤压模型.本文针对Ⅰ型有机质自由基浓度作为沉积盆地古温标进行了探索研究.分析了自然演化系列Ⅰ型有机质的自由基的热演化特征;根据自然演化系列的Ⅰ型有机质自由基浓度及时间-温度指数(TTI)数据,对热模拟实验下的Ⅰ型有机质自由基浓度及时间-温度指数(TTI)值进行校正,由校正后的数据初步建立了Ⅰ型有机质的自由基浓度(Ng)与时间-温度指数(TTI)的定量模型.     

新疆叶尔羌河流域地下水同位素特征及其补给来源分析

笔者以新疆叶尔羌河流域为例,在研究区水文地质调查的基础上,根据不同区域、不同深度D、~(18)O和T值的变化分析地下水补给来源.解决了传统研究方法很难解决的问题.为干旱地区地下水起源及空间分布规律研究提供了新思路。研究结果表明:(1)研究区地下水不是来自大气降水的直接入渗,而是地表水渗漏补给。(2)流域分为两个独立的地下水循环系统,分别接受叶尔羌河与提孜那甫河河水补给。(3)潜水和承压水的起源相同,属统一的地下水系统。(4)地下水径流表现为倾斜平原区径流强烈,地下水以水平运动为主;细土平原区地下水径流迟缓,地下水以垂直蒸发运动为主.径流方向与地表水流向密切相关。     

不同软基处理方法适用性比较

总结分析了国内外现有的软土地基处理的各种方法。通过对采用不同方法进行软基处理的工程实例处理效果的定量对比，发现不同软基处理方法的适用性差异很大，多数工程中仅用一种方法很难达到设计要求，而两种或多种方法联合则可望取得更好的效果。     

郯庐断裂带及其周缘中新生代盆地发育特征

郯庐断裂带作为中国东部滨太平洋地区一条巨型走滑构造带，对其周缘中、新生代盆地的发育、演化起着重要的控制作用。随着太平洋板块俯冲方向从NNW向NW到NWW的变化，郯庐断裂带的活动方式逐步从中生代左行走滑-左行斜向滑动过渡到早第三纪以左行斜向-倾向滑动，晚第三纪-第四纪转为倾滑-右行斜向滑动-右行走滑。走滑活动经历了一个循序渐进的周期演变过程。随着郯庐断裂活动方式的演变，其周缘中、新生代盆地的发育逐渐向北迁移，其中南段周缘盆地主要为中生代盆地，中段周缘盆地主要为中、新生代叠加盆地，中北段周缘盆地主要为早第三纪盆地。每个盆地都经历了拉分(伸展)裂陷到挤压反转的演化过程。此外，在同一时期、同一区域剪切应力场作用下，不同区段因其走向变化导致局部应力场变化，在增压弯曲部位发生会聚、挤压、隆升；而释压拉张部位发生离散、伸展、沉降，从而盆地发育。