Ground subsidence and its socio-economic implications on the population: a case study of the Nakuru area in Central Rift Valley, Kenya

 Several areas of Nakuru Town and its environs often undergo subsidence along the parallel fault zones during and after heavy rainfall. During the rainy season, when most of the subsidence occurs, the overlying unconsolidated volcanoclastic sediments become oversaturated with water. The water reduces the shear strength of the sediments and also introduces extra loading through saturation leading to subterranean erosion along faults. The unconsolidated sediments then collapse into the subsurface water channels which closely follow the fault zones, leading to formation of “sinkholes”. The frequent incidences of ground subsidence in the study area, have caused several fatalities, destroyed settlements and physical infrastructure. Furthermore persistent subsidence has increased the cost of construction and the repair of the destroyed properties. Apart from being hazardous, ground subsidence degrades environment when sewage water, refuse and garbage enter into the groundwater systems through the sinkholes. The fissures formed after subsidence also stand prominently as ugly features from the rest of the terrain. Mitigation measures including control, channelizing of drainage, proper engineering practices and appropriate land use are suggested in this paper. Received: 1 December 1998 · Accepted: 8 March 1999     

内蒙古早二叠世构造古地理的再造

针对近年来关于内蒙古中部早二叠世古亚洲洋存在和向南北两侧大陆俯冲的观点,本文通过构造古地理图的编制,结合早二叠世沉积岩相、古地理、生物组合、陆源碎屑以及烃源岩的讨论,认为中亚陆块和华北克拉通之间晚古生代存在的是陆壳基底之上发育的陆表海和裂陷槽,而不是大开大合的大洋。我们的研究揭示了该区的演化过程。早二叠世早期伴有强烈火山喷发的沉积作用受到三条近东西向分布的同沉积裂陷槽的控制,由北向南,其滨-浅海相的沉积-火山岩厚度分别8000m;5000m和2900m,显示基底为不稳定的裂陷槽。沉积作用受到深断层控制的观点得到本区深部地球物理探测资料的佐证。早二叠世早期沉积岩以粗碎屑岩为主,其中成熟度低的硬砂岩、长石砂岩分布广泛。此外,从陆源碎屑的组分和来源可见,蚀源区具有新生陆壳的组成,近源沉积物具有快速堆积的特征。早二叠世晚期沉积岩为夹有灰岩透镜体的炭质粉砂岩、板岩。由于海相暗色泥岩有机质丰度的提高,形成分布于前三角洲,浅海,半深海的烃源岩(R0值=1.01%~3.67%)。上述沉积组合反映了陆壳成熟度不断提高,构造活动性减小,陆表海逐渐萎缩的特征。本区早二叠世的古生物以腕足类、珊瑚、、苔藓类为主,这一生物组合形成于滨-浅海环境,其中珊瑚大多生活在低潮线以下温暖清澈的水域——几米至50米的滨-浅海区。植物化石及碎片的存在反映海陆交互相的环境。早二叠世晚期本区生物已经混生,主要以北极区生物为主,以Spiriferella为代表的腕足动物群到处可见,但也混有暖水型的分子,如Richtofenia,Enteletes等。生物混生现象暗示早二叠世之前板块已经拼合,不存在深海洋盆。根据毛登地区哲斯组放射虫和菊石、螺、双壳类及植物化石共生的事实,作者认为放射虫可以生活在不同深度的水体中,不能作为深海大洋存在的确切证据。本区的岩浆作用具有以下特点:早二叠世大石寨组双峰式火山岩(281~270Ma)的玄武岩岩浆来自亏损地幔,在岩浆上升过程中受到地壳物质的混染(ISr=0.7024~0.7069,εNd(t)=-3.6~+7.9)。同期的碱性花岗岩和大型基性岩墙群(299~263Ma)呈带状展布在大型地堑带中,它们也具有幔源岩石的Sr-Nd同位素特征:εNd(t)=3.0~5.4,ISr=0.7053~0.7088,εHf(t)=-2.7~2.4。从区域构造演化的背景上看,本区岩浆活动与蒙古境内同期的裂谷型岩浆活动(双峰式火山岩和过碱性的深成岩)一致,均属于伸展背景下受裂陷槽控制的岩浆作用,而非挤压体制下与俯冲作用相关的的岩浆作用。本区晚古生代宝力格裂谷带与蒙古的戈壁-天山裂谷带联接为一条延伸数千千米规模的大陆裂谷带,清楚地显示了中亚造山带自石炭-二叠纪以来在伸展构造的背景下进入新陆壳演化的阶段。     

Reactivation of intrabasement structures during rifting: A case study from offshore southern Norway

Pre-existing structures within crystalline basement may exert a significant influence over the evolution of rifts. However, the exact manner in which these structures reactivate and thus their degree of influence over the overlying rift is poorly understood. Using borehole-constrained 2D and 3D seismic reflection data from offshore southern Norway we identify and constrain the three-dimensional geometry of a series of enigmatic intrabasement reflections. Through 1D waveform modelling and 3D mapping of these reflection packages, we correlate them to the onshore Caledonian thrust belt and Devonian shear zones. Based on the seismic-stratigraphic architecture of the post-basement succession, we identify several phases of reactivation of the intrabasement structures associated with multiple tectonic events. Reactivation preferentially occurs along relatively thick (c. 1 km), relatively steeply dipping (c. 30°) structures, with three main styles of interactions observed between them and overlying faults: i) faults exploiting intrabasement weaknesses represented by intra-shear zone mylonites; ii) faults that initiate within the hangingwall of the shear zones, inheriting their orientation and merging with said structure at depth; or iii) faults that initiate independently from and cross-cut intrabasement structures. We demonstrate that large-scale discrete shear zones act as a long-lived structural template for fault initiation during multiple phases of rifting.     

Cenozoic Intraplate Alkaline Volcanism of Western Bohemia

Three independent volcanic suites have been recognised in W Bohemia: (i) the old unimodal alkaline ol. nephelinite-tephrite (29-19 Ma) in the Ohe Rift, (ii) two contemporaneous weakly (trachybasalt/trachyandesite-trachyte/rhyolite; 13-11 Ma) and strongly (ol. nephelinite-tephrite/basanite; 12-8 Ma) alkaline series in the flank of the Cheb-Domalice Graben formed by the Teplá Highland and (iii) the young unimodal ol. melilitite/ol. nephelinite alkaline suite (2.0-0.12 Ma) at the intersection of the above mentioned structures in the Cheb Basin. The magmas of all the suites are mantle-derived and, in the case of the Cheb-Domalice Graben series, associated with the AFC process. Two main fault systems: (i) ENE-WSW and (ii) NNW-SSE are developed in W Bohemia, corresponding to the directions of the two prominent taphrogenic structures. The southwesterly continuation of the Ohe Rift across the Mariánské Lázn Fault is marked by volcanics only.     

A composite geologic and seismic profile beneath the southern Rio Grande rift, New Mexico, based on xenolith mineralogy, temperature, and pressure

A complete understanding of the processes of crustal growth and recycling in the earth remains elusive, in part because data on rock composition at depth is scarce. Seismic velocities can provide additional information about lithospheric composition and structure, however, the relationship between velocity and rock type is not unique. The diverse xenolith suite from the Potrillo volcanic field in the southern Rio Grande rift, together with velocity models derived from reflection and refraction data in the area, offers an opportunity to place constraints on the composition of the crust and upper mantle from the surface to depths of  60 km. In this work, we calculate seismic velocities of crustal and mantle xenoliths using modal mineralogy, mineral compositions, pressure and temperature estimates, and elasticity data. The pressure, temperature, and velocity estimates from xenoliths are then combined with sonic logs and stratigraphy estimated from drill cores and surface geology to produce a geologic and velocity profile through the crust and upper mantle. Lower crustal xenoliths include garnet ± sillimanite granulite, two-pyroxene granulite, charnokite, and anorthosite. Metagabbro and amphibolite account for only a small fraction of the lower crustal xenoliths, suggesting that a basaltic underplate at the crust–mantle boundary is not present beneath the southern Rio Grande rift. Abundant mid-crustal felsic to mafic igneous xenoliths, however, suggest that plutonic rocks are common in the middle crust and were intraplated rather than underplated during the Cenozoic. Calculated velocities for garnet granulite are between  6.9 and 8.0 km/s, depending on garnet content. Granulites are strongly foliated and lineated and should be seismically anisotropic. These results suggest that velocities > 7.0 km/s and a layered structure, which are often attributed to underplated mafic rocks, can also be characteristic of alternating garnet-rich and garnet-poor metasedimentary rocks. Because the lower crust appears to be composed largely of metasedimentary granulite, which requires deep burial of upper crustal materials, we suggest the initial construction of the continental crust beneath the Potrillo volcanic field occurred by thickening of supracrustal material in the absence of large scale magmatic accretion. Mantle xenoliths include spinel lherzolite and harzburgite, dunite, and clinopyroxenite. Calculated P-wave velocities for peridotites range from 7.75 km/s to 7.89 km/s, with an average of 7.82 km/s. This velocity is in good agreement with refraction and reflection studies that report P_n velocities of 7.6–7.8 km/s throughout most of the Rio Grande rift. These calculations suggest that the low P_n velocities compared to average uppermost mantle are the result of relatively high temperatures and low pressures due to thin crust, as well as a fertile, Fe-rich, bulk upper mantle composition. Partial melt or metasomatic hydration of the mantle lithosphere are not needed to produce the observed P_n velocities.     

依兰－伊通裂谷火山活动与地震活动

依兰－伊通裂谷火山活动与地震活动陈洪洲，任锦章，徐亚勤（黑龙江省地震局哈尔滨１５０００８）摘要沿着依兰－伊通裂谷发育有新生代的火山喷发带和现代的地震活动带。本文论述了该裂谷及其火山与地震活动特征，并讨论了地震与火山的关系，认为该裂谷的某些地震发生可能...     

New stratigraphic and sedimentological investigations on the Middle Eocene–Early Miocene continental successions in southwestern Sardinia (Italy): Paleogeographic and geodynamic implications

In SW Sardinia, the continental Tertiary successions referred up to now to the Cixerri Fm. (Middle Eocene–Lower Oligocene?) have been investigated. Sedimentological analysis suggests these deposits lied down in fluvial environments and comprised between distal braided streams passing eastward to meandering streams/coastal environments (?) under sub-arid climates. The scrutinization of the Cixerri Fm. westernmost successions allowed one to split locally the upper from the lower part based on sedimentological and mineralogical features and indirect dating. Unfortunately, this separation cannot be set everywhere. The few upper outcrops plainly evidenced and well-constrained have been newly named Flumentepido Fm. and assigned to Late Oligocene–Early Miocene: they figure out alluvial fans and proximal braided rivers. This way, the SW Sardinia Tertiary continental sedimentation extends its persistence, contemporaneously changing its tectostratigraphic meaning: from a molassoid context related to the Pyrenean wedge dismantling (Eocene–Oligocene) to a rift-margin succession connected with the opening of the Algero-Provençal back-arc basin due to the Apennine subduction in Oligocene–Miocene times.     

Structure and evolution of the volcanic rift zone at Ponta de São Lourenço,eastern Madeira

Ponta de São Lourenço is the deeply eroded eastern end of Madeira’s east–west trending rift zone, located near the geometric intersection of the Madeira rift axis with that of the Desertas Islands to the southeast. It dominantly consists of basaltic pyroclastic deposits from Strombolian and phreatomagmatic eruptions, lava flows, and a dike swarm. Main differences compared to highly productive rift zones such as in Hawai’i are a lower dike intensity (50–60 dikes/km) and the lack of a shallow magma reservoir or summit caldera. ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar age determinations show that volcanic activity at Ponta de São Lourenço lasted from >5.2 to 4 Ma (early Madeira rift phase) and from 2.4 to 0.9 Ma (late Madeira rift phase), with a hiatus dividing the stratigraphy into lower and upper units. Toward the east, the distribution of eruptive centers becomes diffuse, and the rift axis bends to parallel the Desertas ridge. The bending may have resulted from mutual gravitational influence of the Madeira and Desertas volcanic edifices. We propose that Ponta de São Lourenço represents a type example for the interior of a fading rift arm on oceanic volcanoes, with modern analogues being the terminations of the rift zones at La Palma and El Hierro (Canary Islands). There is no evidence for Ponta de São Lourenço representing a former central volcano that interconnected and fed the Madeira and Desertas rifts. Our results suggest a subdivision of volcanic rift zones into (1) a highly productive endmember characterized by a central volcano with a shallow magma chamber feeding one or more rift arms, and (2) a less productive endmember characterized by rifts fed from deep-seated magma reservoirs rather than from a central volcano, as is the case for Ponta de São Lourenço.     

塔里木盆地西南部南华纪裂谷体系的发现及意义

通过系统的地震资料解释,首次在塔西南地区发现南华纪裂谷体系。该裂谷平面上呈NW-SE走向的长条状,长约450km,宽约70~110km。剖面上为一箕状盆地,西南边界为一大型正断层,是裂谷沉积的同沉积断层,裂谷沉积向西南逐渐加厚,向东北逐渐减薄,沉积中心靠近裂谷的西南边界,构成一大型半地堑构造。其中,南华系是一套典型的生长地层,是裂谷沉积的主体;震旦系为裂谷晚期-后裂谷期沉积。塔西南南华纪裂谷是罗迪尼亚超大陆裂解过程中形成的,其油气勘探价值非常值得期待。     

华北克拉通北缘裂谷渣尔泰群LA-ICP-MS碎屑锆石U-Pb测年及地质意义

华北克拉通自1.85Ga形成之后,经历了广泛的拉伸,形成了一系列中-新元古代裂谷。其中北缘裂谷由渣尔泰群、白云鄂博群及化德群组成,发育了一系列大型-超大型多金属矿床。该裂谷系形成演化的研究对认识华北克拉通中-新元古代演化及区域找矿具有重要意义。但是对于该裂谷系中渣尔泰群的时代,一直存在争议。早期认为渣尔泰群属于中元古代,主要分布于狼山地区和渣尔泰山地区。但最新的研究已将狼山地区的渣尔泰群限定为新元古代,更名为狼山群,并据此确定华北克拉通北缘存在新元古代裂谷。因此,必须对渣尔泰山地区渣尔泰群的时代进行重新限定。在此基础上可综合分析华北克拉通北缘裂谷的形成与演化。系统的LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb测年结果表明,渣尔泰山地区渣尔泰群碎屑锆石年龄峰值主要为1.8~1.9Ga和2.5Ga。与北缘裂谷长城系,包括白云鄂博群下部及化德群下部的碎屑锆石年龄组成特征一致。而蓟县系、待建系及青白口系存在1.1~1.35Ga、1.5~1.6Ga等较年轻的碎屑锆石年龄峰值,如白云鄂博群上部、新元古代狼山群及化德群上部。因此,渣尔泰山地区渣尔泰群整体可与长城系对比。碎屑锆石年龄组成特征表明,渣尔泰群物质主要来自华北克拉通内部的太古宙-古元古代结晶基底。综合前人对白云鄂博群、化德群及狼山群地层年龄及岩浆岩的研究成果,可确定北缘裂谷是中-新元古代多期裂解事件形成的复杂裂谷。