Fracture penetration in planetary ice shells

The proposed past eruption of liquid water on Europa and ongoing eruption of water vapor and ice on Enceladus have led to discussion about the feasibility of cracking a planetary ice shell. We use a boundary element method to model crack penetration in an ice shell subjected to tension and hydrostatic compression. We consider the presence of a region at the base of the ice shell in which the far-field extensional stresses vanish due to viscoelastic relaxation, impeding the penetration of fractures towards a subsurface ocean. The maximum extent of fracture penetration can be limited by hydrostatic pressure or by the presence of the unstressed basal layer, depending on its thickness. Our results indicate that Europa's ice shell is likely to be cracked under 1-3 MPa tension only if it is ?2.5 km thick. Enceladus' ice shell may be completely cracked if it is capable of supporting ∼1-3 MPa tension and is less than 25 km thick.     

Shape, size and multiplicity of main-belt asteroids: I. Keck Adaptive Optics survey

This paper presents results from a high spatial resolution survey of 33 main-belt asteroids with diameters >40 km using the Keck II Adaptive Optics (AO) facility. Five of these (45 Eugenia, 87 Sylvia, 107 Camilla, 121 Hermione, 130 Elektra) were confirmed to have satellite. Assuming the same albedo as the primary, these moonlets are relatively small (∼5% of the primary size) suggesting that they are fragments captured after a disruptive collision of a parent body or captured ejecta due to an impact. For each asteroid, we have estimated the minimum size of a moonlet that can positively detected within the Hill sphere of the system by estimating and modeling a 2-σ detection profile: in average on the data set, a moonlet located at 2/100×RHill (1/4×RHill) with a diameter larger than 6 km (4 km) would have been unambiguously seen. The apparent size and shape of each asteroid was estimated after deconvolution using a new algorithm called AIDA. The mean diameter for the majority of asteroids is in good agreement with IRAS radiometric measurements, though for asteroids with a D<200 km, it is underestimated on average by 6-8%. Most asteroids had a size ratio that was very close to those determined by lightcurve measurements. One observation of 104 Klymene suggests it has a bifurcated shape. The bi-lobed shape of 121 Hermione described in Marchis et al. [Marchis, F., Hestroffer, D., Descamps, P., Berthier, J., Laver, C., de Pater, I., 2005c. Icarus 178, 450-464] was confirmed after deconvolution. The ratio of contact binaries in our survey, which is limited to asteroids larger than 40 km, is surprisingly high (∼6%), suggesting that a non-single configuration is common in the main-belt. Several asteroids have been analyzed with lightcurve inversions. We compared lightcurve inversion models for plane-of-sky predictions with the observed images (9 Metis, 52 Europa, 87 Sylvia, 130 Elektra, 192 Nausikaa, and 423 Diotima, 511 Davida). The AO images allowed us to determine a unique photometric mirror pole solution, which is normally ambiguous for asteroids moving close to the plane of the ecliptic (e.g., 192 Nausikaa and 52 Europa). The photometric inversion models agree well with the AO images, thus confirming the validity of both the lightcurve inversion method and the AO image reduction technique.     

小兴安岭与松辽盆地新生代耦合关系

通过遥感影像判读、野外高精度GPS定位和数字高程模型分析,查明小兴安岭层状地貌的类型、级数、高程、组成物质和空间展布情况。研究结果表明,新生代以来小兴安岭形成了2级夷平面和5级河流阶地。采用线性函数和二次函数两种统计模型对逊克、嘉荫地区的新生代层状地貌单元相对高度与松辽盆地相应时期沉积物厚度作回归分析,统计模型回归平方和与总离差平方和的比值R~2=0. 944～0. 968,回归方程的整体拟合度很高,该结果显示小兴安岭新生代各个阶段的隆升幅度与松辽盆地的沉降幅度呈正相关关系。新生代期间小兴安岭隆升幅度为449 m,其中第四纪以来的隆升幅度为250 m。第四纪期间小兴安岭平均隆升速率为102. 88 mm/ka。小兴安岭间歇性隆升与松辽盆地间歇性下降是同一构造背景下盆山耦合的两种不同表现形式。     

Friction of rocks

Experimental results in the published literature show that at low normal stress the shear stress required to slide one rock over another varies widely between experiments. This is because at low stress rock friction is strongly dependent on surface roughness. At high normal stress that effect is diminished and the friction is nearly independent of rock type. If the sliding surfaces are separated by gouge composed of Montmorillonite or vermiculite the friction can be very low.     

Taphonomic expressions of sedimentary hiatuses: field observations on bioclastic concentrations and sequence anatomy in low,moderate and high subsidence settings

Field studies of post-Palaeozoic siliciclastic records reveal a strong concordance between different types of bioclastic concentrations and discontinuity surfaces within third-order sequences ( 1 My duration), supporting the use of taphonomic criteria in establishing the relative magnitudes of sedimentary hiatuses. Comparison of records across a spectrum of subsidence rates, however (from 10 m to > 1 km/My), shows that, along with appreciable changes in sequence anatomy, the nature of surface-mantling bioclastic concentrations also changes. The most significant surfaces (second- and third-order sequence boundaries, surfaces or intervals of maximum transgression, transgressive surfaces) tend to be either bare or mantled with taphonomically complex hiatal and lag concentrations. These were more consistently encountered in low subsidence than in moderate subsidence records. In high subsidence records, major surfaces were more often mantled by composite or event concentrations, if they were bioclastic at all. In all subsidence settings, comparatively minor surfaces (parasequence boundaries, bed set boundaries and bedding planes) were bare or mantled with relatively simple event and composite concentrations. Although all fossil assemblages are biased taphonomically to some degree, relative degrees of bias should almost certainly vary among discontinuities as a general rule, suggesting specific adjustments in sampling strategies for evolutionary studies.     

Automated rainfall simulator for variable rainfall on urban green areas

Rainfall simulators can enhance our understanding of the hydrologic processes affecting the total runoff to urban drainage systems. This knowledge can be used to improve urban drainage designs. In this study, a rainfall simulator is developed to simulate rainfall on urban green surfaces. The rainfall simulator is controlled by a microcomputer programmed to replicate the temporal variations in rainfall intensity of both historical and synthetic rainfall events with constant rainfall intensity on an area of 1 m². The performance of the rainfall simulator is tested under laboratory conditions with regard to spatial uniformity of the rainfall, the kinetic energy of the raindrops, and the ability to replicate historical and synthetic rainfall events with temporally varying intensity. The rainfall simulator is applied in the field to evaluate its functionality under field conditions and the influence of wind on simulated rainfall. Finally, a field study is carried out on the relationship between runoff, soil volumetric water content, and surface slope. Performance and field tests show that the simulated rainfall has a uniform spatial distribution, whereas the kinetic energy of the raindrops is slightly higher than that of other comparable rainfall simulators. The rainfall simulator performs best in low wind speed conditions. The simulator performs well in replicating historical and synthetic rainfall events by matching both intensity variations and accumulated rainfall depth. The field study shows good correlation between rainfall, runoff, infiltration, soil water content, and surface slope.     

Evaluation of the possible presence of clathrate hydrates in Europa's icy shell or seafloor

Several substances besides water ice have been detected on the surface of Europa by spectroscopic sensors, including CO₂, SO₂, and H₂S. These substances might occur as pure crystalline ices, as vitreous mixtures, or as clathrate hydrate phases, depending on the system conditions and the history of the material. Clathrate hydrates are crystalline compounds in which an expanded water ice lattice forms cages that contain gas molecules. The molecular gases that may constitute Europan clathrate hydrates may have two possible ultimate origins: they might be primordial condensates from the interstellar medium, solar nebula, or jovian subnebula, or they might be secondary products generated as a consequence of the geological evolution and complex chemical processing of the satellite. Primordial ices and volatile-bearing compounds would be difficult to preserve in pristine form in Europa without further processing because of its active geological history. But dissociated volatiles derived from differentiation of a chondritic rock or cometary precursor may have produced secondary clathrates that may be present now. We have evaluated the current stability of several types of clathrate hydrates in the crust and the ocean of Europa. The depth at which the clathrates of SO₂, CO₂, H₂S, and CH₄ are stable have been obtained using both the temperatures observed in the surface [Spencer, J.R., Tamppari, L.K., Martin, T.Z., Travis, L.D., 1999. Temperatures on Europa from Galileo photopolarimeter-radiometer: Nighttime thermal anomalies. Science 284, 1514-1516] and thermal models for the crust. In addition, their densities have been calculated in order to determine their buoyancy in the ocean, obtaining different results depending upon the salinity of the ocean and type of clathrate. For instance, assuming a eutectic composition of the system MgSO₄H₂O for the ocean, CO₂, H₂S, and CH₄ clathrates would float but SO₂ clathrate would sink to the seafloor; an ocean of much lower salinity would allow all these clathrates to sink, except that CH₄ clathrate would still float. Many geological processes may be driven or affected by the formation, presence, and destruction of clathrates in Europa such as explosive cryomagmatic activity [Stevenson, D.J., 1982. Volcanism and igneous processes in small icy satellites. Nature 298, 142-144], partial differentiation of the crust driven by its clathration, or the local retention of heat within or beneath clathrate-rich layers because of the low thermal conductivity of clathrate hydrates [Ross, R.G., Kargel, J.S., 1998. Thermal conductivity of Solar System ices, with special reference to martian polar caps. In: Schmitt, B., De Berg, C., Festou, M. (Eds.), Solar System Ices. Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht, pp. 33-62]. On the surface, destabilization of these minerals and compounds, triggered by fracture decompression or heating could result in formation of chaotic terrain morphologies, a mechanism that also has been proposed for some martian chaotic terrains [Tanaka, K.L., Kargel, J.S., MacKinnon, D.J., Hare, T.M., Hoffman, N., 2002. Catastrophic erosion of Hellas basin rim on Mars induced by magmatic intrusion into volatile-rich rocks. Geophys. Res. Lett. 29 (8); Kargel, J.S., Prieto-Ballesteros, O., Tanaka K.L., 2003. Is clathrate hydrate dissociation responsible for chaotic terrains on Earth, Mars, Europa, and Triton? Geophys. Res. 5. Abstract 14252]. Models of the evolution of the ice shell of Europa might take into account the presence of clathrate hydrates because if gases are vented from the silicate interior to the water ocean, they first would dissolve in the ocean and then, if the gas concentrations are sufficient, may crystallize. If any methane releases occur in Europa by hydrothermal or biological activity, they also might form clathrates. Then, from both geological and astrobiological perspectives, future missions to Europa should carry instrumentation capable of clathrate hydrate detection.     

Long‐term landscape evolution in the Darwin region and its implications for the origin of landsurfaces in the north of the Northern Territory

The development of landsurfaces in the north of the Northern Territory has traditionally been attributed to successive episodes of uplift, erosion and weathering. The lower and younger two of the four landsurfaces attributed to such development, the Wave Hill and Koolpinyah surfaces, dominate the landscape in the Darwin region. Investigations of the relationship between the Cretaceous stratigraphy and the nature of deep weathering in the Darwin region show that these surfaces are structurally controlled. A bioturbated bed in the Darwin Member of the Cretaceous Bathurst Island Formation has limited the depth of weathering in this region mainly to the level of the Koolpinyah surface. A silicified horizon in the deeply weathered Cretaceous strata has controlled the level of the Koolpinyah and Wave Hill surfaces elsewhere. Furthermore, the presence of detrital laterite profiles, being the main form of evidence used for the identification of both of these surfaces, is challenged; in many localities these detrital profiles are in fact in situ, discounting the idea that these surfaces developed as a result of successive episodes of pediplanation. Similarities are drawn between the origin of these surfaces and the development of equivalent surfaces in the Daly River Basin to the south of Darwin. The practice of extrapolation between surfaces across widely separated regions of northern Australia has been previously shown to be based on tenuous grounds. The same degree of tenuity must now be placed upon such extrapolations in the north of the Northern Territory.     

2008年初罕见低温雨雪天气对柑桔的影响及补救措施

分析了桂林市2008年1月13日~2月20日期间的罕见低温雨雪天气过程的特点、对柑桔生产造成的影响,并提出了灾后恢复生产补救及防御对策。     

鄂尔多斯盆地演化-改造的时空坐标及其成藏(矿)响应

鄂尔多斯盆地的发育时限为中晚三叠世—早白垩世,晚白垩世以来为盆地的后期改造时期;盆地主体具克拉通内盆地特征;现今盆地为经过多期不同形式改造的残留盆地。该盆地叠加在早、晚古生代大型盆地之上,又属多重叠合型盆地。鄂尔多斯盆地集油气、煤和铀于一盆,多种能源矿产丰富。根据盆地及周缘地区主要地质构造特征和地质事件,结合对盆地各区裂变径迹年龄的综合研究认为,在盆地发育时期(T2—K1)至少发生了4期明显的构造变动,将盆地的沉积-演化过程划分为4个阶段:中晚三叠世和早中侏罗世富县—延安期为盆地发育的两个鼎盛阶段,广泛接受沉积,湖盆宽阔,沉积范围为今残留盆地面积的2倍多;形成重要的含油和成煤岩系。这两个阶段被期间发生的区域抬升变动(J1)所分隔。抬升导致沉积间断,延长组顶部遭受强烈而不均匀的侵蚀下切,形成起伏较大的侵蚀地貌。延安期末盆地抬升变动不强烈,沉积间断和剥蚀延续时间短。随后又复沉降,进入盆地发育的第三阶段中侏罗世直罗-安定期:沉积范围仍较广阔,但湖区面积明显减小。晚侏罗世构造变动强烈,在盆地西缘形成逆冲-推覆构造带,在其东侧前渊局限堆积厚度不等的砾岩,盆地中东部地区遭受剥蚀改造;今黄河以西地区初显东隆西坳格局。在早白垩世阶段,沉积分布仍较广阔,不整合超覆在前期西缘冲断带和南、北边部隆起之上。在盆地演化的前三个阶段,沉积中心均分布在延安附近及其以东;而堆积中心则位于邻近物源的盆地西部,且不同阶段位置有别;直到早白垩世,盆地的沉积中心和堆积中心的分布位置才大体一致,主要位于盆地西部的中南段。早白垩世末,鄂尔多斯盆地整体抬升,大型盆地消亡;盆地开始进入后期改造时期。在晚白垩世以来的盆地后期改造时期,鄂尔多斯盆地主要发生了以下重要地质事件:1盆地主体持续幕式、差异性整体抬升和强烈而不均匀的剥蚀,东部黄河附近被剥蚀的中生界厚度最大可达2000m;2盆地本部长期幕式整体的差异抬升和剥蚀,形成3期区域侵蚀-夷平面(E32—E12,E23和N21);3地块边部裂陷,周缘断陷盆地相继形成,接受巨厚沉积;4持续达2亿多年的东隆西降运动于中新世晚期(8MaBP)反转易位;东部开始沉降,广泛接受红黏土沉积;六盘山、地块西缘和西部相继隆升;标志着中国西部区域构造运动对该区的影响更为重要;5分别在8MaBP和2.5MaBP,风成红黏土、黄土开始广泛堆积,先后形成红土准高原和黄土高原及黄土高原面;6黄河水系的发育、外流和侵蚀地貌的形成。根据各主要地质事件的发生和动力学环境的演变,将该区晚白垩世以来划分为5个演化阶段(K2—E1;E2-3;N1-21;N31—N2;Q)。这些地质事件的发生和构造变动,与周邻各构造域,特别是中国东、西部(含青藏高原)重大构造运动的复合、叠加及其与时彼此消长变化密切相关;其活动和改造,使中生代盆地的原始面貌大为改观。鄂尔多斯盆地多种能源矿产成生—成藏(矿)和定位的主要期次,与盆地中新生代演化和改造的阶段有明显的响应联系和密切的耦合关系。盆地演化末(晚)期及之后的整体差异隆升和区域剥蚀,对鄂尔多斯盆地多种能源矿产的成藏(矿)和分布及其相互作用的影响最为重要。