Classification of five new ordinary chondrites from North West Africa

We classified five new ordinary chondrites from North West Africa. NWA 3010 is an L6(S5), NWA 3011 is an L5(S5), NWA 3012 is an LL4(S5), NWA 3013 is an L5(S5), and NWA 3014 is an H4(S1). The meteorites experienced a range of terrestrial alteration, with NWA 3010 equal to weathering grade W2, NWA 3011 equal to W3, NWA 3012 equal to W3, NWA 3013 equal to W2, and NWA 3014 equal to W4.     

On the origin of the “kleine Kügelchen” called Chondrules

In this paper we investigate two major issues: (1) What are chondrules, and (2) why do they exist? We review the literature pertaining to each question and explore answers. We discuss the diversity of chondrules, especially with regard to their igneous textures and compositions. We review the constraints that have been placed experimentally on the thermal histories of chondrules and list those fundamental properties that all chondrule formation models must explain quantitatively in order to be considered predictive, quantitative models. We provide background on the three major classes of chondrule formation models currently being discussed, and scrutinize each with respect to how well they adhere to the experimental constraints placed on chondrule formation. Finally, we list several unresolved issues that are now or will soon be at the forefront of chondrule research.     

太阳星云凝聚过程的岩石学模型：（1）球粒陨石的凝聚成因

建立类地行星区太阳星云凝聚过程的岩石学模型，对于合理解释陨石、地球和类地行星的成因关系，探讨地球起源和估算地球的整体成分都有着重要意义。本文中根据天体化学和太阳系演化学说关于太阳星云物理化学条件的基本分析，以及实验凝聚岩石学的研究结果，推断在太阳星云盘的类地行星区中可能有星云的气－固和气－液－固两种凝聚作用发生。通过对球粒陨石中球粒和基质矿物成分及结构构造特征的对比，论证了绝大多数球粒的气－液－固凝聚成因和基质的气－固凝聚成因，并讨论了球粒陨石各化学群的凝聚成因模式。     

富钙长石-橄榄石包体与其他部分典型包体W-L边的成因

球粒陨石中的富Ca、Al包体(简称CAI)形成于星云演化的最初始阶段,保存了大量星云形成和演化的各种信息。研究认为,包体的成因主要包括星云直接凝聚和熔融结晶,少部分甚至经历过高温蒸发过程。部分CAI最外层具有由一种或几种矿物组成的Warking-Lovering边(简称为W-L边),CAI和其W-L边对于认识早期星云环境和界定CAI的形成时间等均具有重要意义。目前,对于W-L边的形成过程研究并不深入,且一直存在争议。本文主要介绍了三个典型包体:C#1(富钙长石-橄榄石包体)、GRV 022459-2RI5(A型包体)和GRV 021579-3RI5(富尖晶石球粒状包体)及其W-L边的矿物岩石学和氧同位素组成特征。C#1包体明显经历过熔融结晶过程,W-L边氧同位素组成具有与包体内部矿物相似的富~(16)O同位素特征,表明W-L边的成因与包体的形成过程密切相关,形成于同一富~(16)O同位素组成区域,且W-L边属于包体熔融结晶过程后期的产物。矿物岩石学特征表明,GRV 022459-2RI5属于星云直接凝聚形成,其W-L边为包体形成过程最晚期星云凝聚产物。GRV021579-3RI5经历过熔融结晶过程,其W-L边为包体结晶最后阶段的产物。     

Earth and Mars – Distinct inner solar system products

Composition of terrestrial planets records planetary accretion, core–mantle and crust–mantle differentiation, and surface processes. Here we compare the compositional models of Earth and Mars to reveal their characteristics and formation processes. Earth and Mars are equally enriched in refractory elements (1.9 × CI), although Earth is more volatile-depleted and less oxidized than Mars. Their chemical compositions were established by nebular fractionation, with negligible contributions from post-accretionary losses of moderately volatile elements. The degree of planetary volatile element depletion might correlate with the abundances of chondrules in the accreted materials, planetary size, and their accretion timescale, which provides insights into composition and origin of Mercury, Venus, the Moon-forming giant impactor, and the proto-Earth. During its formation before and after the nebular disk's lifetime, the Earth likely accreted more chondrules and less matrix-like materials than Mars and chondritic asteroids, establishing its marked volatile depletion. A giant impact of an oxidized, differentiated Mars-like (i.e., composition and mass) body into a volatile-depleted, reduced proto-Earth produced a Moon-forming debris ring with mostly a proto-Earth's mantle composition. Chalcophile and some siderophile elements in the silicate Earth added by the Mars-like impactor were extracted into the core by a sulfide melt (∼0.5% of the mass of the Earth's mantle). In contrast, the composition of Mars indicates its rapid accretion of lesser amounts of chondrules under nearly uniform oxidizing conditions. Mars’ rapid cooling and early loss of its dynamo likely led to the absence of plate tectonics and surface water, and the present-day low surface heat flux. These similarities and differences between the Earth and Mars made the former habitable and the other inhospitable to uninhabitable.     

Oxygen isotopic compositions of chondrules: Implications for evolution of oxygen isotopic reservoirs in the inner solar nebula

We review the oxygen isotopic compositions of minerals in chondrules and compound objects composed of a chondrule and a refractory inclusion, and bulk oxygen isotopic compositions of chondrules in unequilibrated ordinary, carbonaceous, enstatite, and Kakangari-like chondrites, focusing on data acquired using secondary ion mass-spectrometry and laser fluorination coupled with mass-spectrometry over the last decade. Most ferromagnesian chondrules from primitive (unmetamorphosed) chondrites are isotopically uniform (within 3–4‰ in Δ¹⁷O) and depleted in ¹⁶O (Δ¹⁷O>−7‰) relative to amoeboid olivine aggregates (AOAs) and most calcium–aluminum-rich inclusions (CAIs) (Δ¹⁷O<−20‰), suggesting that these classes of objects formed in isotopically distinct gaseous reservoirs, ¹⁶O-poor and ¹⁶O-rich, respectively. Chondrules uniformly enriched in ¹⁶O (Δ¹⁷O<−15‰) are exceptionally rare and have been reported only in CH chondrites. Oxygen isotopic heterogeneity in chondrules is mainly due to the presence of relict grains. These appear to consist of chondrules of earlier generations and rare refractory inclusions; with rare exceptions, the relict grains are ¹⁶O-enriched relative to chondrule phenocrysts and mesostasis. Within a chondrite group, the magnesium-rich (Type I) chondrules tend to be ¹⁶O-enriched relative to the ferrous (Type II) chondrules. Aluminum-rich chondrules in ordinary, enstatite, CR, and CV chondrites are generally ¹⁶O-enriched relative to ferromagnesian chondrules. No systematic differences in oxygen isotopic compositions have been found among these chondrule types in CB chondrites. Aluminum-rich chondrules in carbonaceous chondrites often contain relict refractory inclusions. Aluminum-rich chondrules with relict CAIs have heterogeneous oxygen isotopic compositions (Δ¹⁷O ranges from −20‰ to 0‰). Aluminum-rich chondrules without relict CAIs are isotopically uniform and have oxygen isotopic compositions similar to, or approaching, those of ferromagnesian chondrules. Phenocrysts and mesostases of the CAI-bearing chondrules show no clear evidence for ¹⁶O-enrichment compared to the CAI-free chondrules. Spinel, hibonite, and forsterite of the relict refractory inclusions largely retained their original oxygen isotopic compositions. In contrast, plagioclase and melilite of the relict CAIs experienced melting and ¹⁶O-depletion to various degrees, probably due to isotopic exchange with an ¹⁶O-poor nebular gas. Several igneous CAIs experienced isotopic exchange with an ¹⁶O-poor nebular gas during late-stage remelting in the chondrule-forming region. On a three-isotope diagram, bulk oxygen isotopic compositions of most chondrules in ordinary, enstatite, and carbonaceous chondrites plot above, along, and below the terrestrial fractionation line, respectively. Bulk oxygen isotopic compositions of chondrules in altered and/or metamorphosed chondrites show evidence for mass-dependent fractionation, reflecting either interaction with a gaseous/fluid reservoir on parent asteroids or open-system thermal metamorphism. Bulk oxygen isotopic compositions of chondrules and oxygen isotopic compositions of individual minerals in chondrules and refractory inclusions from primitive chondrites plot along a common line of slope of 1, suggesting that only two major reservoirs (gas and solids) are needed to explain the observed variations. However, there is no requirement that each had a permanently fixed isotopic composition. The absolute (²⁰⁷Pb–²⁰⁶Pb) and relative (²⁷Al–²⁶Mg) chronologies of CAIs and chondrules and the differences in oxygen isotopic compositions of most chondrules (¹⁶O-poor) and most refractory inclusions (¹⁶O-rich) can be interpreted in terms of isotopic self-shielding during UV photolysis of CO in the initially ¹⁶O-rich (Δ¹⁷O−25‰) parent molecular cloud or protoplanetary disk. According to these models, the UV photolysis preferentially dissociates C¹⁷O and C¹⁸O in the parent molecular cloud and in the peripheral zones of the protoplanetary disk. If this process occurs in the stability field of water ice, the released atomic ¹⁷O and ¹⁸O are incorporated into water ice, while the residual CO gas becomes enriched in ¹⁶O. During the earliest stages of evolution of the protoplanetary disk, the inner solar nebula had a solar H₂O/CO ratio and was ¹⁶O-rich. During this time, AOAs and the ¹⁶O-rich CAIs and chondrules formed. Subsequently, the inner solar nebula became H₂O- and ¹⁶O-depleted, because ice-rich dust particles, which were depleted in ¹⁶O, agglomerated outside the snowline (5 AU), drifted rapidly towards the Sun and evaporated. During this time, which may have lasted for 3 Myr, most chondrules and the ¹⁶O-depleted igneous CAIs formed. We infer that most chondrules formed from isotopically heterogeneous, but ¹⁶O-depleted precursors, and experienced isotopic exchange with an ¹⁶O-poor nebular gas during melting. Although the relative roles of the chondrule precursor materials and gas–melt isotopic exchange in establishing oxygen isotopic compositions of chondrules have not been quantified yet, mineralogical, chemical, and isotopic evidence indicate that Type I chondrules may have formed in chemical and isotopic equilibrium with nebular gas of variable isotopic composition. Whether these variations were spatial or temporal are not known yet.     

Self-magnetization of the early Solar System matter

The remnant magnetization of chondrite type meteorite matter indicates the existence of 10⁻⁵-10⁻³ T magnetic fields in the early Solar System accretion disk. Taking into account parameter regimes being typical for this evolutionary stage of Sun and planets we consider the protosolar disk matter as partially ionized dusty plasma consisting of massive charged dust grains, neutral gas, electrons and ions. Results of systematic multifluid neutral gas-plasma-dust simulations show that shear flow driven collisional interactions yield a self-magnetization of the early Solar System matter which is able to explain the measured remnant magnetization of meteorite material.     

Melting and differentiation of early-formed asteroids: The perspective from high precision oxygen isotope studies

A number of distinct methodologies are available for determining the oxygen isotope composition of minerals and rocks, these include laser-assisted fluorination, secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) and UV laser ablation. In this review we focus on laser-assisted fluorination, which currently achieves the highest levels of precision available for oxygen isotope analysis. In particular, we examine how results using this method have furthered our understanding of early-formed differentiated meteorites. Due to its rapid reaction times and low blank levels, laser-assisted fluorination has now largely superseded the conventional externally-heated Ni “bomb” technique for bulk analysis. Unlike UV laser ablation and SIMS analysis, laser-assisted fluorination is not capable of focused spot analysis. While laser fluorination is now a mature technology, further analytical improvements are possible via refinements to the construction of sample chambers, clean-up lines and the use of ultra-high resolution mass spectrometers.High-precision oxygen isotope analysis has proved to be a particularly powerful technique for investigating the formation and evolution of early-formed differentiated asteroids and has provided unique insights into the interrelationships between various groups of achondrites. A clear example of this is seen in samples that lie close to the terrestrial fractionation line (TFL). Based on the data from conventional oxygen isotope analysis, it was suggested that the main-group pallasites, the howardite eucrite diogenite suite (HEDs) and mesosiderites could all be derived from a single common parent body. However, high precision analysis demonstrates that main-group pallasites have a Δ¹⁷O composition that is fully resolvable from that of the HEDs and mesosiderites, indicating the involvement of at least two parent bodies. The range of Δ¹⁷O values exhibited by an achondrite group provides a useful means of assessing the extent to which their parent body underwent melting and isotopic homogenization. Oxygen isotope analysis can also highlight relationships between ungrouped achondrites and the more well-populated groups. A clear example of this is the proposed link between the evolved GRA 06128/9 meteorites and the brachinites.The evidence from oxygen isotopes, in conjunction with that from other techniques, indicates that we have samples from approximately 110 asteroidal parent bodies (∼60 irons, ∼35 achondrites and stony-iron, and ∼15 chondrites) in our global meteorite collection. However, compared to the likely size of the original protoplanetary asteroid population, this is an extremely low value. In addition, almost all of the differentiated samples (achondrites, stony-iron and irons) are derived from parent bodies that were highly disrupted early in their evolution.High-precision oxygen isotope analysis of achondrites provides some important insights into the origin of mass-independent variation in the early Solar System. In particular, the evidence from various primitive achondrite groups indicates that both the slope 1 (Y&R) and CCAM lines are of primordial significance. Δ¹⁷O differences between water ice and silicate-rich solids were probably the initial source of the slope 1 anomaly. These phases most likely acquired their isotopic composition as a result of UV photo-dissociation of CO that took place either in the early solar nebula or precursor giant molecular cloud. Such small-scale isotopic heterogeneities were propagated into larger-sized bodies, such as asteroids and planets, as a result of early Solar System processes, including dehydration, aqueous alteration, melting and collisional interactions.There is increasing evidence that chondritic parent bodies accreted relatively late compared to achondritic asteroids. This may account for the fact that apart from a few notable exceptions’ such as the aubrite-enstatite chondrite association, known chondrite groups could not have been the parents to the main achondrite groups.