Resistance to overland flow due to bed‐load transport on plane mobile beds

During bed‐load transport by overland ?ow, momentum is transferred from the ?ow to the bed via grain collisions, resulting in a decrease in ?ow velocity and an increase in ?ow resistance, herein termed bed‐load transport resistance. In overland ?ow on mobile plane beds, total ?ow resistance f consists of grain resistance f_g and bed‐load transport resistance f_bt. In order to identify and evaluate the relative importance of the factors controlling f_bt, 38 ?ume experiments were performed on slopes of 2·7 and 5·5° using sediment with median diameters of 0·74 and 1·16 mm. All ?ows were supercritical and turbulent. This study is an extension of a recent study by Gao and Abrahams (Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 2004, vol. 29, pp. 423–435). These authors found that f_bt is controlled by three factors: sediment concentration C, dimensionless sediment diameter D_*, and relative submergence h/D, where h is ?ow depth, D is median sediment diameter. However, a new dimensional analysis identi?es two additional factors: Froude number F and slope S. Multiple regression analyses reveal (1) that these ?ve factors together explain 97 per cent of the variance of f_bt, and (2) that S controls f_bt entirely through C. The variable C is therefore redundant, and a new functional equation relating f_bt to D_*, h/D, S and F is developed. This equation may be used to predict f_bt. An advantage of this equation is that it may be used to predict f_bt without measuring bed‐load transport rate. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Impact of hydroelectric power releases on the morphology and sedimentology of the bed of the Warche River (Belgium)

The Butgenbach dam on the Warche River was built in 1932 in order to maintain a suf?cient supply of water to the Robertville reservoir situated 7 km downstream, for the production of hydroelectricity. During winter months, releases are made almost every day from the Butgenbach dam. From a hydrological point of view, this has resulted in signi?cantly reducing the number of discharges that are higher than bankfull. Despite the reduction in peak discharge, there is a signi?cant increase in the number of ef?cient discharges (0·6 bankfull). The impacts of these hydrological modi?cations on the bed morphology and sedimentology below the Butgenbach dam have been studied and the following geomorphological modi?cations have been identi?ed: a doubling of the width of the channel in 45 years, a reduction in the number of rif?es and pools, an increase in the number of gravel bars and islets and an increase in bedrock outcrops in the channel. Moreover, the ?nest bed particles are mobilized by the almost daily releases, inducing a signi?cant increase in bed‐material size sorting. The reduction of sinuosity and the disappearance of bed differentiation and rif?e/pool sequences have produced a diminution of bed roughness and an increase of the competence of the river. Thus relatively small ?oods can remove the armoured layer. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Patterns of sediment slug translation and dispersion following typhoon‐induced disturbance,Oyabu Creek,Kyushu, Japan

A six‐year monitoring programme characterized the migration/dispersion patterns of sediment slugs generated following typhoon‐induced disturbances in 1993 and 1997 along a single‐thread gravel‐bed stream, Oyabu Creek, on Kyushu Island, Japan. This laterally con?ned creek comprises rif?e–pool sequences with intervening bedrock outcrops. The passage of sediment pulses associated with sediment slug processes re?ected, and was controlled by, the rif?e–pool structures which provided channel bed roughness, the volume of sediment stored along valley ?oors, and the distribution of bedrock outcrops. Changes to bed material size following major sediment inputs during the disturbance events also exerted an in?uence on subsequent sediment slug processes. The sequence of rainfall events, together with changes to channel bed structure, induced different phases in the sediment slug processes. The capacity of a reach to store or trap sediment, as recorded by the longitudinal structure of the channel, varied during these differing phases. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Flume experiments on the horizontal stream offset by strike‐slip faults

Flume experiments, in which the middle section of an erosion channel is displaced horizontally, have been conducted to assess the response of streams to horizontal displacement by a strike‐slip fault. The experimental erosion channel was developed in a mixture of sand and clay, which provided relatively stable banks with its cohesiveness. Horizontal displacement of a strike‐slip fault perpendicular to the channel is expected to add a ?at section to its longitudinal pro?le along the fault line. The experimental stream eliminated this ?at section with downstream degradation, upstream aggradation, and lateral channel shift. As a result, a roughly continuous longitudinal pro?le was maintained. This maintenance of a continuous longitudinal pro?le along channel is considered to be the principle of stream response to horizontal displacement by a strike‐slip fault. Downstream degradation was the dominant process of this stream response in the overall tendency of erosion without sand supply. When the rate of fault displacement was low (long recurrence interval), the experimental stream eroded the fault surface, jutting laterally into the channel like a scarp, and de?ected the channel within the recurrence interval. This lateral channel shift gave some gradient to the reach created by fault displacement (offset reach), and the downstream degradation occurred as much as completing the remaining longitudinal pro?le adjustment. When the rate of fault displacement was high (short recurrence interval), the lateral erosion on the ?rst fault surface was interrupted by the next fault displacement. The displacement was then added incrementally to the existing channel offset making channel shift by lateral erosion increasingly dif?cult. The channel offset with sharp bends persisted without much modi?cation, and downstream degradation and upstream aggradation became evident with the effect of the offset channel course, which worked like a dam. In this case, a slight local convexity, which was incidentally formed by downstream degradation and upstream aggradation, tended to remain in the roughly continuous longitudinal pro?le, as long as the horizontal channel offset persisted. In either case, once the experimental stream obtained a roughly continuous gradient, further channel adjustment seemed to halt. Horizontal channel offset remained to a greater or lesser extent at the end of each run long after the last fault displacement. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Morphometric controls and geomorphic responses on fans in the Southern Alps,New Zealand

Morphometric variables associated with 41 debris‐?ow and 18 ?uvial fans and their basins in the Southern Alps of New Zealand are examined. The results show statistically signi?cant differences in the area, maximum elevation, relief and ruggedness (Melton's R) of the basin and the area, gradient, and apex and toe elevations of the fan between debris‐?ow and ?uvial sites. Concavity of the fan longitudinal pro?le also differs between the two fan types, although this could not be tested statistically. Most of these morphometric differences re?ect differences in processes and environmental controls on them. Discriminant analysis indicates that basin area and fan gradient best differentiate the two fan types by process. Moderately strong correlations exist, on both debris‐?ow and ?uvial fans, between basin area or Melton's R and fan area. Correlations between basin area or Melton's R and fan gradient are generally weaker. The results of this study also indicate that on debris‐?ow‐prone fans the fan gradient and basin Melton's R have lower thresholds which overlap little with upper thresholds associated with basins where only stream?ow reaches the fan. These thresholds may therefore have value in preliminary morphometric assessments of debris‐?ow hazard on fans in the Southern Alps. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The frictional resistance characteristics of a bedrock‐influenced river channel

Much of the published literature relating to reach‐scale total ?ow resistance concentrates on alluvial rivers and little mention is made of the more extreme resistance found in bedrock‐in?uenced river systems. This paper presents the results of a detailed investigation of total ?ow resistance variation for ?ve channel types on the Sabie River, South Africa (cohesive mixed anastomosed, uncohesive mixed anastomosed, mixed pool–rapid, alluvial braided and alluvial single thread) over a range of discharges. Manning's ‘n’ and Darcy‐Weisbach f resistance coef?cients are calculated using Barnes' methodology (H. H. Barnes, US Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 1849, 1967). These data are analysed at the scales of channel type and morphologic unit and the resultant resistance values are compared with the literature. Generally the low‐?ow friction values estimated for the bedrock‐in?uenced channel types are higher than any reported. Flow resistance quanti?cation of the alluvial channel type study sites on the Sabie River produced values slightly higher than earlier studies of similar morphologies. In situations where signi?cant areas of irregular bedrock are exposed (cohesive mixed anastomosed and mixed pool–rapid channel types) the high ?ow resistance coef?cients at low discharges probably re?ect energy dissipation due to hydraulic jumps and internal distortions; however, these values fall as discharge increases to values comparable to those recorded for step–pool rivers. It is suggested that the slightly elevated resistance coef?cients recorded in the alluvial channel types are the result of the vegetation roughness component, operating when the macro‐channel bar features are inundated. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Flow threads in surface run‐off: implications for the assessment of flow properties and friction coefficients in soil erosion and hydraulics investigations

Soil surface microtopography produces non‐uniform surface run‐off, in which narrow threads of relatively deep and fast ?ow move within broader, shallower, slower‐moving regions. This kind of ?ow is probably widespread, given that microtopography is itself common. Methods used to record the properties of surface run‐off include grid‐ or transect‐based depth observations, with a single mean ?ow speed derived by calculation from V = Q/WD, and the use of dye timing to estimate velocity, with an effective mean depth calculated from D = Q/WV. Because these methods allow only single, ?ow‐?eld mean values to be derived for V or D, neither is well suited to non‐uniform ?ows. The use of depth data to derive a ?ow‐?eld mean V furthermore implicitly applies area weighting to the depth data; likewise, the use of dye speeds for V inherently overestimates mean V because dye dominantly follows the faster ?ow threads. The associated errors in derived parameters such as friction coef?cients are not readily quanti?ed and appear not to have been addressed previously. New ?eld experiments made on untilled soil surfaces in arid western NSW, Australia, explore these circumstances and the implications for deriving meaningful measures of ?ow properties, including friction coef?cients. On surfaces deliberately chosen for their very subtle microtopography, average thread velocities are shown to be commonly 2·5 times greater than the ?ow‐?eld mean, and locally 6–7 times greater. On the other hand, non‐thread ?ow speeds lie below the ?ow‐?eld mean, on average reaching only 84 per cent of this value, and often considerably less. Flow‐?eld means conceal the existence of regions of the ?ow ?eld whose properties are statistically distinct. Results con?rm that a reliance on ?ow‐?eld average depths yields estimates of friction coef?cients that are biased toward the shallower, high‐roughness parts of the ?ow, while if dye speeds are relied upon the results are biased toward the deeper, smoother threads of ?ow. A new approach to the evaluation of friction coef?cients in non‐uniform ?ows is advanced, involving the determination of separate coef?cients for threads and non‐thread zones of the ?ow ?eld. In contrast, ?ow‐?eld friction coef?cients as they are customarily derived in run‐off plot experiments subsume these distinct coef?cients in proportions that are generally unknown. The value of such coef?cients is therefore questionable. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

六氟磷酸锂的水分测定

六氟磷酸锂是锂离子电池电解液材料中应用最为广泛的一种 ,水含量的多少对其品质好坏有着决定性作用 ,在此介绍了用卡尔·费休法来测定电解质材料六氟磷酸锂中的水分 ,方法简便、准确 ,结果满意     

CBERS-02 CCD和SPOT-4 HRVIR1两个传感器的敦煌场地在轨绝对辐射定标及对比分析

中国资源卫星应用中心于2005年8月，利用敦煌场地分别对CBERS-02CCD和SPOT-4 HRVIR1两个传感器进行在轨绝对辐射定标。本文对此次地面同步测量数据进行了处理分析，基于反射率法计算出了CBERS-02CCD和SPOT-4HRVIR1两个传感器各波段的定标系数。其中，SPOT-4HRVIR1的定标结果与法国官方8月份提供的定标系数相比，差异在6％内，满足法方对绝对辐射定标精度的要求。此外，应用定标系数分别将两个传感器的图像数据反演成地表反射率图像，对它们进行了对比分析。     

考虑地物BRDF特性改进后的CBERS-02卫星CCD相机的辐射定标系数

在MODIS数据对CBERS-02卫星CCD相机的交叉辐射定标、获得CCD相机时间系列的辐射定标斜率系数与截距基础上，本文考虑地物BRDF特性的影响，开展了提高CCD相机数据定量化应用的辐射定标数据精度的研究，并提供了比较全的时间系列辐射定标系数。