Bed sediment entrainment by streamflow: State of the science

In fluvial sedimentology, bed sediment entrainment by streamflow has a decisive role in controlling several fluvial processes. Owing to its huge practical importance, the subject has been painstakingly explored for over a century. However, a detailed understanding of the mechanism of the bed sediment entrainment phenomenon achieved hitherto is far from complete. The central theme of bed sediment entrainment is occupied by the sediment entrainment threshold, which varies enormously in its qualitative definition, identification and quantification encompassing a broad range of spatiotemporal scales. This article presents the state of the science of the entrainment of non‐cohesive bed sediments under a steady‐unidirectional streamflow. It begins with the diverse definitions and representations of the entrainment threshold criterion from both qualitative and quantitative perspectives, scrutinising its suitability and ambit of applicability. Then, the effects of energetic factors that drive the entrainment threshold criterion are critically appraised. The indispensable mechanisms of bed sediment entrainment, including the theoretical background and modelling strategies, the role of turbulent bursting phenomenon and the phenomenological perspective into the origin of the scaling laws of sediment entrainment, are explained. Throughout the article, special emphasis is given to the strengths and weaknesses of the current state of the science. In addition, a deliberate attempt is made to invoke the thought‐provoking ideas on the multifarious features of bed sediment entrainment. Finally, the innovative perspectives on the bed sediment entrainment are provided and the concluding remarks are made, elucidating the major challenges and suggesting the prospective ways to resolve them as a future scope of research.     

The influence of turbidity currents and contour currents on the distribution of deep‐water sediment waves offshore eastern Canada

Sediment waves are commonly observed on the sea floor and often vary in morphology and geometry according to factors such as seabed slope, density and discharge of turbidity currents, and the presence of persistent contour currents. This paper documents the morphology, internal geometry and distribution of deep‐water (4000 to 5000 m) bedforms observed on the sea floor offshore eastern Canada using high‐resolution multibeam bathymetry data and seismic stratigraphy. The bedforms have wavelengths of >1 km but fundamentally vary in terms of morphology and internal stratigraphy, and are distinguished into three main types. The first type, characterized by their long‐wavelength crescentic shape, is interpreted as net‐erosional cyclic steps. These cyclic steps were formed by turbidity currents flowing through canyons and overtopping and breaching levées. The second type, characterized by their linear shape and presence on levées, is interpreted as net‐depositional cyclic steps. These upslope migrating bedforms are strongly aggradational, indicating high sediment deposition from turbidity currents. The third type, characterized by their obliqueness to canyons, is observed on an open slope and is interpreted as antidunes. These antidunes were formed by the deflection of the upper dilute, low‐density parts of turbidity currents by contour currents. The modelling of the behaviour of these different types of turbidity currents reveals that fast‐flowing flows form cyclic steps while their upper parts overspill and are entrained westward by contour currents. The interaction between turbidity currents and contour currents results in flow thickening and reduced sediment concentration, which leads to lower flow velocities. Lower velocities, in turn, allow the formation of antidunes instead of cyclic steps because the densiometric Froude number (Fr′) decreases. Therefore, this study shows that both net‐erosional and net‐depositional cyclic steps are distributed along channels where turbidity currents prevail whereas antidunes form on open slopes, in a mixed turbidite/contourite system. This study provides insights into the influence of turbidity currents versus contour currents on the morphology, geometry and distribution of bedforms in a mixed turbidite–contourite system.     

Topographical controls on small‐volume pyroclastic flows

Emplacement of small‐volume (<0·1 km³) pyroclastic flows is significantly influenced by topography. The Arico ignimbrite on Tenerife (Canary Islands) is a characteristic small‐volume pyroclastic flow deposit emplaced on high relief topography. The pyroclastic flow flowed down pre‐existing valleys on the southern slopes of the island. In proximal areas deep (up to 100 m) valleys acted as efficient conduits for the pyroclastic flow, which was mostly channelled; in this particular area the ignimbrite corresponds to a homogeneous, moderately welded deposit, consisting of flattened pumices in an abundant ashy matrix with a relatively low lithic fragment content. In intermediate zones significant changes occur in the steepness of the slope and, although still channelled, here the pyroclastic flow was influenced by hydraulic jumps. In this area, two different units can be clearly distinguished in the ignimbrite: the lower unit is composed of a lithic‐rich ground‐layer deposit that formed at the turbulent, highly concentrated head of the flow; the upper unit consists of a well welded pumice‐rich deposit that occasionally reveals a basal layer formed by shearing with the lower part. This division into two units is maintained as far as distal areas near the present‐day coastline, where the slope is very gentle or null and the ignimbrite is not channelled. The ground layer is not found in distal areas. The ignimbrite here only consists of the upper unit, which is occasionally repeated due to a surging process provoked by the lower flow speed, as the pyroclastic flow spread out of the channelled zone. A theoretical model on how topography controlled the deposition of the Arico ignimbrite is derived by interpreting the observed lithological and sedimentological variations in terms of changes in topography and bedrock morphology. This new model is of general applicability and will help to explain other deposits of similar characteristics.     

动能歧视模式ICP-MS测定地球化学样品中14种痕量元素

应用传统ICP-MS法测定勘查地球化学样品中Ag、Cd等痕量元素,基体效应和多原子离子干扰严重,准确测定的难度较大。本文基于当前ICP-MS消除干扰技术,分析了ICP-MS标准模式(STD)及动能歧视模式(KED)测定地球化学样品中Ag、Cd等14种痕量元素的有效性,通过比较这两种模式的测定效果,在此基础上确定了各元素的有效测定模式。结果表明:在KED模式下,基体元素如Zr、Nb氧化物的产率降低,基本上消除了Zr、Nb氧化物对痕量元素Ag、Cd的多原子离子干扰。KED模式提高了信噪比,降低了方法检出限,如Ag、Cd的检出限分别为0. 004mg/kg、0. 005mg/kg,其他12种元素的检出限也低于多目标地球化学调查76种元素分析方案中的检出限。测定痕量元素的准确度显著优于STD模式。实验中采用简单的硝酸-氢氟酸-高氯酸消解样品,残渣用王水复溶,结合KED模式下优选出干扰较小的同位素作为测定同位素,以Rh作为内标校正仪器产生的信号漂移,将样品溶液稀释至1000倍,基体效应降低至最小。本方法经国家一级标准物质的验证,测定结果与认定值相符,可为勘查地球化学提供高质量数据。     

原子荧光光谱测定土壤和水系沉积物中硒的干扰来源及消除方法

原子荧光光谱法(AFS)具有灵敏度高、结构简单、容易操作等优点,但目前测定土壤和沉积物中的硒等元素的标准方法所采用的消解过程繁琐,易产生干扰。沸水浴可以把土壤和水系沉积物中硒提取完全,本文根据样品中元素丰度和仪器性能,将AFS测定Se的干扰分为Cu和Pb两大类,根据实验提出在水浴消解液加入浓盐酸(不宜加入硫脲-抗坏血酸),通过增加溶液酸度和Cl~-浓度,即保持样品中盐酸浓度高于23%,可抑制Cu~(2+)还原为Cu~0和Pb~(4+)生成PbH_4,有效降低了Cu的负干扰和Pb的正干扰,提高了AFS测定Se的精密度和准确度。本方法测定Se的检出限为0.008mg/kg,测试标准物质的相对标准偏差为0.5%～11%,相对误差为-16.3%～9.5%;比行业标准HJ 680—2013的检出限(0.01mg/kg)、精密度(0.79%～23.1%)和准确度等技术指标更佳。     

海南岛新生代玄武质熔岩源区中再循环物质及其年龄的限定:来自Hf-Sr-Nd-Pb同位素的制约

再循环洋壳和沉积物在壳.幔循环过程中扮演着重要的角色。前人研究指出板片俯冲与海南地幔柱形成关系密切,然而地幔柱源区中是否存在再循环沉积物仍然不得而知。本文将首次报导海南岛新生代玄武质熔岩的Hf同位素,并将新的Sr-Nd-Pb同位素与前人数据相结合,限定再循环物质的组成及其年龄。与同位素地幔趋势相比,给定εNd时,海南岛玄武质熔岩的εHf值更低;而且Eu/Eu*>1、Sr/Sr*>1,与Al2O3、MgO都不存在相关性,说明Eu和Sr的正异常是继承了源区的特征,指示源区中存在再循环洋壳物质的参与。海南岛玄武质熔岩的Ce/Pb与εNd、εHf呈正相关关系,Nd/Pb与87Sr/86Sr呈负相关关系,它们都指向了沉积物端元。根据εHf-εNd模型和Pb同位素演化模型,推断源区中再循环洋壳和沉积物相对年轻,其年龄应小于1.0Ga。这些再循环洋壳和沉积物将进入深部地幔,并与地幔中的橄榄岩反应形成二阶段辉石岩,随着海南地幔柱不断上升而发生熔融,最终熔体喷发至地表形成海南岛玄武质熔岩。     

基于人工降雨试验的淮北地区产流产沙差异性研究

针对淮北地区水土流失问题,利用野外人工模拟降雨试验,分析了不同雨强(40mm/h、60mm/h和80mm/h)和坡度(5°、10°和15°)条件下砂姜黑土和黄潮土产流产沙差异。结果表明:砂姜黑土初始产流时间长,产流总量小。坡面出现细沟时,砂姜黑土初始含沙量随时间变化有减小趋势,最终趋于稳定,而黄潮土含沙量呈波动变化;60mm/h、80mm/h雨强10°坡砂姜黑土产沙总量大于黄潮土,其他情况黄潮土产沙总量大于砂姜黑土,黄潮土土壤侵蚀严重。砂姜黑土表面细沟发育密度大,主要在坡面中下部,为相互连通的树枝状结构,而黄潮土表面细沟发育密度小,形成沟壑。两种土壤产流总量、产沙总量与坡度、雨强分别呈多元线性函数、多元幂函数关系,雨强对坡面产流产沙总量的影响大于坡度。     

河床沉积物非均质性影响下的潜流交换数值模拟

为了揭示河床沉积物非均质性对潜流交换的影响,构建了沙波地形作用下的地表水-地下水耦合模型,通过生成不同的渗透系数随机场,讨论了不同地表水动力过程和河床沉积物非均质性对潜流交换通量、交换空间及平均停留时间的影响规律。结果表明,所构建的地表水-地下水耦合模型能够准确刻画水沙界面附近流场,模型具有良好的适用性;均质或非均质河床沉积物情景下,水沙界面上的平均交换通量、停留时间与雷诺数之间均呈现幂函数关系,潜流交换深度则在地表水进入完全紊流之后趋于稳定。结果还表明,较强的河床沉积物非均质性能够有效增强水沙界面上潜流交换通量和空间交换频率,但会制约潜流交换空间并缩短水流在潜流带中的停留时间。     

辽宁盘锦荣兴港作业区MT19钻孔海洋沉积物粒度特征

使用激光粒度分析仪对辽宁盘锦荣兴港MT19钻孔6个样品进行分析,运用福克-沃德（Folk-Ward）图解法计算相关粒度参数并绘制输出粒度频率特征曲线。结果表明：盘锦荣兴港沉积物中黏土(d＜0.004 0 mm)的体积分数最小,平均值为8.49%;粉砂(0.004 0～0.063 mm)的体积分数较大,平均值为38.39%;砂(0.063～2.00 mm)的体积分数变化较大,平均值为53.13%。Shepard沉积物三角形分类图解表明,研究区沉积物类型多属于粉砂质黏土和黏土质粉砂;粒度频率曲线显示,除MT19-2-2号样品为主次三峰型外,其余均为主次双峰型,说明该区域在海进-海退过程中的某些时段沉积环境相似,出现了沉积物粒径组合及大小相似的情况。     

参数筛选法在内蒙古扎赉特旗水系沉积物异常评价中的应用

利用异常参数筛选法对扎赉特旗地区1∶5万水系沉积物异常进行评序,选择地球化学特征和地质背景特征两类评价指标分别进行合理赋值,然后按60%和40%分配权重计算异常评序总分。依据异常评序结果筛选了前8位异常进行查证,在HS-18、HS-21和HS-23三个异常区内发现了多处金、银、铜、铅锌等多金属矿（化）体,取得了较好的应用效果,表明异常参数筛选法可以避免人为经验筛选的主观性,是一种快速有效的异常筛选评价方法。