The effects of seal-swim activities on the New Zealand fur seal (Arctophoca australis forsteri) in the Bay of Plenty,New Zealand,and recommendations for a sustainable tourism industry

Wildlife tourism (including pinniped tourism) offers people the opportunity to see wildlife in their natural environment. It can provide positive outcomes for the animals, through improved resources for conservation, or negative outcomes, such as inducing the animals to move away. This study assessed the impacts and sustainability of a novel but growing tourism industry, swimming with seals, based on interactions with New Zealand fur seals (Arctophoca australis forsteri) in the Bay of Plenty, New Zealand, between December 2011 and March 2012. The behaviour of all seals in the water (interaction, neutral, and avoidance) was monitored at 1 min intervals, during 16 seal-swim events. Seals mostly ignored the swimmers (54% of records), some interacted with swimmers (41%); seals rarely avoided the swimmers (5%). Interactions peaked in frequency at 6 min into the swims, then declined. They occurred most frequently during December, corresponding with the pupping period when juvenile seals—the age class most likely to interact—are excluded from breeding areas and so spend much of their time in the water. Compliance of tour operators to regulations was also monitored during seal-swim activities and the industry was found to be highly compliant. The results suggest the activities monitored had minimal impact on seals in the water, and are likely to be sustainable in relation to seal conservation. Tourism can be site and time specific, and it is recommended that approaches such as those trialled here be adopted to monitor other wildlife tourism activities to ensure their sustainability. Further research needs to examine potential impacts of the tours on seals ashore.     

Fishers' perceptions,facilitating factors and challenges of community-based no-take zones in the Sian Ka’an Biosphere Reserve,Quintana Roo,Mexico

In response to fisheries decline in the Mexican Caribbean and continuing deterioration of the Mesoamerican Reef, conservation NGOs have begun to negotiate and collaboratively design a network of no-take zones (NTZs) with three fishing cooperatives in the Sian Ka’an Biosphere Reserve (SKBR), among other places along the coast of Quintana Roo. Spiny lobster (Panulirus argus) is the target of the main fishery within cooperative concessions. Fishers are uniquely positioned to enforce and monitor NTZs and evaluate their effectiveness. This study analyzes fishers' perceptions as indicators of social acceptance of NTZs, and identifies facilitating factors and challenges of the community-based process. Consistent with similar studies, responses of fishers (89 out of a population of 124) to a semi-structured interview showed that perceptions of NTZs largely reflect fishers' concerns and interests. A high proportion of fishers accurately identified main NTZ objectives of regulation, conservation and economic improvement, as well as NTZ locations. Further, fishers cared about ecosystem sustainability and, because NTZs would not significantly limit their main economic activity, endorsed the initiative while expecting additional benefits. Declining trends in lobster catch influenced a perceived need for NTZs. Major concerns were that illegal fishers would reap NTZ benefits and that economic impacts and benefits were uncertain. Most fishers found the decision-making process inclusive, were willing to take responsibility for enforcing NTZs and believed people leading the process were trustworthy. Differences in endorsement of NTZs among cooperatives points to the importance of understanding fishers’ incentives to collaborate, and the leadership and organizational dynamics which shape participatory processes. This analysis highlights challenges in advancing NTZs in complex ecological, socio-economic and regulatory contexts. It underscores the need for community-based processes that transcend understanding of conservation measures but also invests in sustainable, operative and trustful working relationships, as well as the urgency of interdisciplinary approaches in ensuring effective design and implementation of this relatively new fishery management tool.     

National comprehensive approaches for rebuilding fisheries in South Korea

Korea's coastal and offshore fisheries have experienced reduction in their catch in the early 2000. The amount of catch from coastal and offshore fisheries dropped from 1.7 million tons in 1986 to 1 million tons in 2004. To address such catch reduction, fish stock enhancement programs have been constantly developed and implemented. However, as fish stocks have been estimated to decrease since 2000 in spite of various management measures, the Korean Government genuinely acknowledges the necessity to enhance fisheries productivity through the recovery of depleted fish stocks. Based on such acknowledgement, a fish stock rebuilding plan (FSRP) combined with conventional fish stock enhancement programs was established in 2005. For stocks which have shown drastic decrease, a FSRP was set up and promoted. So far, 10 FSRPs have been established and operated, and plan is being made to expand them to 20 species by 2012. The result of pilot projects shows that stocks have been increasing after the introduction of FSRPs. For instance, the catch per unit effort (CPUE) of sandfish in the East Sea has increased from 0.44 in 2005 to 0.78 in 2011. Consequently, fishing income has increased by 15%. The key lessons learned during the implementation of FSRP are: the causes for the decrease of stock vary and are complicated and it is necessary to adjust and eliminate some conventional policies that could have unforeseen negative impacts on fish stocks. The FSRP-based fisheries management policy in Korea carries great significance, for it has changed the focus of policy from simply maintaining the status quo to stock recovery and it allows relevant stakeholders to get actively involved in the procedures of establishing and promoting the plan, leading to effective implementation of the plan. The current FSRP is operated with species, but if it can be gradually expanded to encompass the whole ecosystem, it will greatly contribute to more effective management and fish stock recovery for all species in offshore and coastal waters surrounding Korea.     

Ecosystem-based management institutional design: Balance between federal,state, and local governments within the Gulf of Mexico Alliance

We present a case study of the organizational framework of the Gulf of Mexico Alliance (GOMA), which was implemented to promote the use of ecosystem-based management (EBM) at a regional level. GOMA is a state-led initiative formed to protect and restore coastal and marine resources of the Gulf of Mexico. Representatives of the US Gulf States, together with their federal partners, clearly defined ecological, social, and economic short- and long-term objectives to be reached through regional collaborations. The aim of this paper is to show how GOMA, and particularly the Ecosystem Integration and Assessment Priority Issue Team, in its attempt to apply ecosystem approaches to manage marine resources, modified the common organizational scheme by implementing partnerships at various governmental (federal, state, local) and nongovernmental levels. We address the following major points considered to be of importance for EBM implementation: (1) multilevel cooperation, (2) stakeholders’ involvement, (3) sharing of information, (4) bridging science and policy, and (5) consensus-based decision making.     

Using Memoranda of Understanding to facilitate marine management in Canada

Like many other coastal states, management of Canada’s offshore areas is complicated by the division of authority among differing government departments and agencies. However, as a Confederation, this administrative complexity in Canada is further exacerbated by the jurisdictional division of powers between the Federal Parliament and the Provincial Legislatures. The most common tool for overcoming this division and facilitating cooperation are formalized non-binding agreements known as Memoranda of Understanding (MOUs). While there are a large number of MOUs in existence in Canada, few are being implemented. In part, this is because the non-binding nature of the agreement means that either party may discard their obligations at will. This has led to many useful MOUs being discarded and years of work and resources expended negotiating these agreements being wasted. This paper discusses the findings from three such agreements, each focusing on efforts to manage Canada’s offshore resources. It highlights the importance of six factors capable of increasing the likelihood that any given MOU aimed at collaboration between different authorities will be successful. These factors include: a foundation of cooperation, clear statement of priorities, feasible and adaptable work plans, integration at various management levels, a legislative foundation, and adequate financial resources.     

The way forward with ecosystem-based management in tropical contexts: Reconciling with existing management systems

This paper discusses some of the challenges and opportunities that can arise when implementing ecosystem-based management (EBM) in tropical nations. EBM creates a new series of challenges, problems, and opportunities that must be considered in light of existing governance and management frameworks in a local context. The paper presents five case studies from different parts of the tropical world, including Oceania, insular and continental Southeast Asia, East Africa, and the Caribbean, which illustrate that the implementation of EBM in watershed and marine ecosystems offers a new series of challenges and opportunities for its inclusion with existing forms of environmental governance and management. The paper suggests that EBM is best thought of as an expansion of customary management (CM) and integrated coastal management (ICM), rather than a paradigm shift, and that it has certain benefits that are worth integrating into existing systems when possible. The paper concludes that the cultural and institutional context of CM as well as the experience, technical skills, and legal basis that serve ICM programs are logical platforms from which to build EBM programs. Some guidelines for creating hybrid management regimes are suggested. In sum, declining marine species and ecosystems require urgent action, necessitating utilization of existing paradigms such as ICM and CM as a foundation for building EBM.     

Engaging Los Angeles County subsistence anglers in the California marine protected area planning process

Ecosystem-based management is more successful when a great diversity of stakeholders is engaged early in a decision-making process. Implementation of the California Marine Life Protection Act (MLPA) has been stakeholder-based, coordinating the participation of a wide range of people including divers, fishermen, conservationists, local officials, business owners and coastal residents. Although commercial and recreational fishermen have actively participated throughout the MLPA implementation process, and research related to California’s sport and commercial fisheries has been integrated into the process, pier and shore anglers have been relatively unengaged as stakeholders. This study was completed to generate information about pier angler understanding and sentiment towards marine protected areas (MPAs), as well as to educate anglers on the MLPA implementation process in southern California and inform them on involvement opportunities. Of the 3030 pier anglers surveyed over 12 months, 78% only fish for subsistence from piers and from shore (never from boats); 84.6% are of non-White/Euro-American ethnicity and speak English as a second language; and 82% indicated that they were supportive of establishing a strong network of MPAs in southern California, specifically fully-protective no-take marine reserves. This study is an example of an alternative and customized method of outreach designed to reach a unique and previously unengaged stakeholder group, which stands to be affected by the implementation of the MLPA in California. Engaging such non-traditional stakeholders in public policy may be critical for decision makers to gauge all views from those standing to be affected by a policy—not just the views of those that regularly attend policy meetings—and for the ultimate success of policy implementation and community support.     

CITES-listings,EU eel trade bans and the increase of export of tropical eels out of Indonesia

Following the decision in 2007 by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) to include European eel Anguilla anguilla on its Appendix II, and the 2010 ban of all eel exports by EU member states, a shift has occurred to tropical Asian eel species to meet the demand from East Asia. Here the focus is on the role Indonesia played in fulfilling this demand using official export figures, reports in the Indonesian media and government documents. Despite Indonesia first putting in place restrictions on the export of eel in 1974 the export has increased exponentially over the last 25 years. Prior to the EU ban it exported ~1.4 million kg/year. With the infrastructure in place, and close trade links to East Asia, and helped by government encouragement, Indonesia was in an excellent position to step in where the EU posed restrictions. Exports increased to 3.2 million kg/year (2007–2009), to 4.0 million kg/year (2010–2012), and to 6.1 million kg (2013). The interest in eel trade in Indonesia increased in parallel with the exports. From 2010 onwards the searches for the Indonesian equivalent of eel (“ikan sidat”) became frequent enough for it to be picked up by Google Trends. Indonesia is home to five species of eel, and while it is unclear in what quantities each is traded, Indonesian media reports suggest that the majority comprises A. bicolar and A. marmorata. More stringent management schemes, possibly including CITES-listing, and better monitoring are needed to ensure that international trade is not an impediment to the conservation of tropical eels.     

Reclamation-oriented spatiotemporal evolution of coastal wetland along Bohai Rim,China

Coastal wetlands are located in the ecotone of interaction between the land surface and sea, and anthropogenic activities extensively interfere with these wetlands through the reclamation of large tidal wetlands and destruction of the function of the ecosystems. In this study, we investigated the dynamic evolutionary characteristics of the Bohai Rim coastal area over the past 40 years using the Modified Normalized Difference Water Index, the fractal dimension, object-oriented classification, the land-use transfer trajectory, and regression analysis. Additionally, we quantified and monitored the evolution of reclamation and analyzed the correlation between reclamation and coastal wetlands based on 99 Landsat-2, -5, and -8 images (at 60 m and 30 m spatial resolution) over the period 1980–2019. The results are as follows. (1) The coastline of the Bohai Rim increased by 1 631.2 km from 1980 to 2019 with a zigzag variation. The artificial coastline increased by 2 946.1 km, whereas the natural coastline decreased by 90%. (2) The area of man-made wetlands increased by 3 736.9 km2, the area of construction land increased by 1 008.4 km2, and the natural wetland area decreased by 66%. The decrease of tidal flats is the main contributor to the decrease of natural wetland area (takes account for 91.1%). Coastal areas are affected by intense human disturbance, which was taken place across a large area of tidal flats and caused the landscape to fragment and be more heterogeneous. The coastal zone development activities were primarily concentrated in the southern Laizhou Bay, the Yellow River Delta, the Bohai Bay, the northern Liaodong Bay, and the Pulandian Bay. The solidified shorelines and increase in sea level have resulted in intertidal wetlands decreasing and impaired wetland ecology. (3) There is a good agreement between reclamation and the size of the coastal wetlands. Both land reclamation and the reduction in coastal wetland areas are significantly related to the population size, fishery output value, and urbanization rate. In summary, human activities, such as the construction of aquaculture ponds and salt pans, industrialization, and urbanization, are the primary forces that influence the environmental changes in the coastal region. This study is beneficial for establishing and improving the systems for the rational development and utilization of natural resources, and provides theoretical references for restoring wetland ecology and managing future reclamation activities in other coastal zone-related areas.     

Made in Japan: The Japanese market and herring roe production and management in Canada's southern Gulf of St. Lawrence

The herring roe fishery in Canada's southern Gulf of St. Lawrence is a productive fishery that lies outside the confines of privatized arrangements. Yet, this fishery is compromised by its dependence on the Japanese seafood market. Consideration of the efficiency of this fishery needs to account for the role assumed by this market in setting fishing practices. A more ecologically and economically efficient use of the herring resource requires greater attention to supply chain integration by local harvesters, processors and buyers prior to engaging with distant markets. This is necessary regardless of the property rights regime that is in place.