Evaluating the Global Environment Facility: A goodwill gesture or a serious attempt to deliver global benefits?

Over its 17 years, the UN's Global Environment Facility (GEF) has allocated US $7.5 billion intended to develop and implement scientifically and socially credible solutions to key global environmental problems such as climate change, biological diversity loss and degradation of transboundary aquatic systems. We studied 906 GEF projects to analyse the challenges that it is facing in delivering solutions that are likely to be sustainable in the long-term. The research included desk reviews of relevant documents and follow-up interviews with a wide range of stakeholders. Some of the challenges the GEF faces are deeply rooted in temporal and spatial mismatches of scale between human economies and their environmental consequences and the strongly sectoral way current society is managed. We conclude that the GEF obtained impressive results for tackling problems of limited complexity and easily quantified benefits but progress is slower on more complex and less tangible problems impeding sustainable development. Potentially, the GEF could enable adaptive management through a ‘learning by doing’ process, transforming it into an innovative mechanism for delivering global benefits. Continued emphasis on ‘easy wins’ would not allow it to achieve this goal.     

A lattice Boltzmann-finite element model for two-dimensional fluid–structure interaction problems involving shallow waters

In this paper, a numerical method for the modeling of shallow waters interacting with slender elastic structures is presented. The fluid domain is modeled through the lattice Boltzmann method, while the solid domain is idealized by corotational beam finite elements undergoing large displacements. Structure dynamics is predicted by using the time discontinuous Galerkin method and the fluid–structure interface conditions are handled by the Immersed Boundary method. An explicit coupling strategy to combine the adopted numerical methods is proposed and its effectiveness is tested by computing the error in terms of the energy that is artificially introduced at the fluid–solid interface.     

Morphological evolution of the Guadiana estuary and intertidal zone in response to projected sea‐level rise and sediment supply scenarios

Analysis of Holocene sediment accumulation in the Guadiana estuary (southern Portugal) during sea‐level rise since ca. 13 cal. ka BP was used to simulate the long‐term morphological evolution of the lower Guadiana estuary and the associated intertidal zone for 21st‐century predicted sea‐level rises. Three sea‐level rise scenarios given by the IPCC ( 2007 ) were used in the simulations of morphology using a large‐scale behaviour‐oriented modelling approach. Sedimentation rate scenarios were derived both from the Holocene evolution of the estuary and from a semi‐empirical estimation of present‐day sediment aggradation. Our results show that the net lateral expansion of the intertidal zone area would be about 3–5% of the present intertidal zone area for each 10 cm rise in sea level. Under constraints imposed by the lack of fluvial sediment supply, the lateral expansion of the landward boundary of the intertidal zone will occur mainly in the Portuguese margin of the Guadiana estuary, while submergence of the salt marshes will occur in the Spanish margin. Therefore the Spanish margin is highly vulnerable to both sea‐level rise and lack of sediment supply. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A Regional Ocean Reanalysis System for Coastal Waters of China and Adjacent Seas

A regional ocean reanalysis system for the coastal waters of China and adjacent seas has been developed by the National Marine Data and Information Service(NMDIS).It produces a dataset package called CORA (China ocean reanalysis).The regional ocean model used is based on the Princeton Ocean Model with a generalized coordinate system(POMgcs).The model is parallelized by NMDIS with the addition of the wave breaking and tidal mixing processes into model parameterizations.Data assimilation is a sequential three-dimensional variational(3D-Var) scheme implemented within a multigrid framework.Observations include satellite remote sensing sea surface temperature(SST),altimetry sea level anomaly(SLA),and temperature/salinity profiles.The reanalysis fields of sea surface height,temperature,salinity,and currents begin with January 1986 and are currently updated every year. Error statistics and error distributions of temperature,salinity and currents are presented as a primary evaluation of the reanalysis fields using sea level data from tidal gauges,temperature profiles,as well as the trajectories of Argo floats.Some case studies offer the opportunity to verify the evolution of certain local circulations.These evaluations show that the reanalysis data produced provide a good representation of the ocean processes and phenomena in the coastal waters of China and adjacent seas.     

Thermodynamic Characteristics of Tropical Cyclones with Rapid Intensity Change over the Coastal Waters of China

In order to investigate the different thermodynamic mechanisms between rapid intensifying (RI) and rapid weakening (RW) tropical cyclones (TCs), the thermodynamic structures of two sets of composite TCs are analyzed based on the complete-form vertical vorticity tendency equation and the NCEP/NCAR reanalysis data. Each composite is composed of five TCs, whose intensities change rapidly over the coastal waters of China. The results show that the maximum apparent heating source Q ₁ exists in both the upper and lower troposphere near the RI TC center, and Q ₁ gets stronger at the lower level during the TC intensification period. But for the RW TC, the maximum Q ₁ exists at the middle level near the TC center, and Q ₁ gets weaker while the TC weakens. The maximum apparent moisture sink Q ₂ lies in the mid troposphere. Q ₂ becomes stronger and its peak-value height rises while TC intensifies, and vice versa. The increase of diabatic heating with height near the TC center in the mid-upper troposphere and the increase of vertical inhomogeneous heating near the TC center in the lower troposphere are both favorable to the TCs’ rapid intensification; otherwise, the intensity of the TC decreases rapidly.     

Application of brine differentiation and Langelier–Ludwig plots to fresh-to-brine waters from sedimentary basins: Diagnostic potentials and limits

Classical chemical classification plots that use major anions and cations can discern between different water facies but they do not offer sufficient discriminatory power for salt waters from sedimentary basins, whose origin is therefore frequently misunderstood.     

Delamination of smectite in river-borne suspensions at the fluvial/marine interface – An experimental study

Fine fractions (<2 μm) from smectite-rich flood-plain sediments from the Elbe and Weser rivers in Germany were treated in the laboratory with synthetic sea salt solutions at different concentrations and for different periods of time to document sheet delamination of smectite particles at the fluvial/marine interface and thus simulate changes in clay minerals at the mouth of a river. The project consisted of two steps: (1) Pilot tests were made in 0.5% salt solutions (brackish environment) showing a nearly 2-min delay of the clearing of the clayey suspensions, when the suspension was redispersed 15 and 30 min later after the first measurement. This was due to an obviously increased number of fine laminae from disintegrated smectite particles. (2) X-ray diffraction studies (XRD) of the clayey material from suspensions in 0.0, 0.5, 1.0, and 3.0% salt solutions after standing 10 min, and one and three weeks were made to document alteration reactions of smectite. An aliquot was pipetted periodically from each series, and oriented clay-mineral specimens were analyzed by XRD in air-dried, glycol- and glycerin-solvated states. The peak intensities in the XRD patterns of the clay minerals smectite, random-ordered mixed-layer illite/smectite (I–S), kaolinite, chlorite, and illite did not change in the salt-free series during the experiments. In contrast the peak intensities of smectite and I–S mineral in the air-dried and glycerin-solvated states after suspension in saline solutions decreased significantly. The d-values of the smectitic materials in the air-dried state also decreased after contact with the saline solutions, and in the glycerin-solvated state the full-width-at-half-maximum (FWHM) of the 001 smectite reflection increased by about 20%, indicating a reduction in grain size.     

Barnacles as biomonitors of metal contamination in coastal waters

The use of barnacles as biomonitors of metal contamination in coastal waters worldwide is reviewed as a critique compilation of the reported studies and presents resume-tables of available data for future reference. The barnacle body reflects both short and long-term metal level environmental variations and the metal bioaccumulation occurs mainly in their granules (relatively inactive pools). The barnacle body is considered as good biomonitoring material and different barnacle species could bioaccumulate metal concentration ranges of 40–153,000 μg/g of Zn, 20–22,230 μg/g de Fe, 1.5–21,800 μg/g of Cu, 5.9–4742 μg/g of Mn, 0.1–1000 μg/g of Pb, 0.7–330 μg/g of Cd, 0.4–99 μg/g of Ni and 0.2–49 μg/g of Cr. However, as the plates (‘shells’) of barnacle exoskeletons can be affected by metal levels in coastal waters, mainly in their composition and morphology, they are not considered good biomonitoring material. Despite this, the use of a specific barnacle species or group of species in a specific region must firstly be carefully validated and the interpretation of the contaminant bioaccumulation levels should involve specific environmental variations of the region, physiological parameters of the barnacle species and the relationship between the potential toxicity of the contaminant for the environment and their significance for the barnacle species. Barnacles, particularly a widespread cosmopolitan species such as Amphibalanus amphitrite, have a great potential as biomonitors of anthropogenic contamination in coastal waters and have been used worldwide, including Europe (United Kingdom, Turkey, Poland, Croatia, Spain and Portugal), Asia (India and China), Oceania (Australia), North America (Florida, Massachusetts and Mexico) and South America (Brazil). The use of barnacle species as biomonitors of metal contamination in coastal waters is considered an important and valuable tool to evaluate and predict the ecological quality of an ecosystem.     

What role do beds of submerged macrophytes play in structuring estuarine fish assemblages? Lessons from a warm-temperate South African estuary

Habitat variability is one of the factors influencing species richness within estuarine systems, and a loss of habitat can result in a restructuring of the estuarine ichthyofaunal assemblage, particularly if these conditions persist over long time periods. The potential effects of the loss of extensive submerged macrophyte beds (Ruppia cirrhosa and Potamogeton pectinatus) on an estuarine fish assemblage were investigated through an analysis of a long-term seine net catch dataset from the temporarily open/closed East Kleinemonde Estuary, South Africa. Catch data for a 12-year period, encompassing six years of macrophyte presence and six years of macrophyte senescence, indicated that the loss of this habitat did not influence species richness but changes in the relative abundance of certain species were evident. A shift in dominance from vegetation-associated species to those associated with sandy environments (e.g. members of the family Mugilidae) was observed. However, species wholly dependent on macrophytes such as the critically endangered estuarine pipefish Syngnathus watermeyeri were only recorded during years when macrophyte beds were present, while vegetation-associated species such as the sparid Rhabdosargus holubi persisted at lower levels of relative abundance. The reduced abundance of all vegetation-associated fish species during years of macrophyte senescence was probably reflective of declining food resources resulting from the loss of macrophyte beds and/or increased vulnerability to predation. Submerged beds of aquatic plants are therefore important habitats within temporarily open/closed estuaries, South Africa’s dominant estuary type.     

An optical model for the remote sensing of coloured dissolved organic matter in coastal/ocean waters

An optical model is developed for the remote sensing of coloured dissolved organic matter (CDOM) in a wide range of waters within coastal and open ocean environments. The absorption of CDOM (denoted as a_g) is generally considered as an exponential form model, which has two important parameters – the slope S and absorption of CDOM at a reference wavelength a_g(λ₀). The empirical relationships for deriving these two parameters are established using in-situ bio-optical datasets. These relationships use the spectral remote sensing reflectance (R_rs) ratio at two wavelengths R_rs(670)/R_rs(490), which avoids the known atmospheric correction problems and is sensitive to CDOM absorption and chlorophyll in coastal/ocean waters. This ratio has tight relationships with a_g(412) and a_g(443) yielding correlation coefficients between 0.77 and 0.78. The new model, with the above parameterization applied to independent datasets (NOMAD SeaWiFS match-ups and Carder datasets), shows good retrievals of the a_g(λ) with regression slopes close to unity, little bias and low mean relative and root mean square errors. These statistical estimates improve significantly over other inversion models (e.g., Linear Matrix-LM and Garver-Siegel-Maritorena-GSM semi-analytical models) when applied to the same datasets. These results demonstrate a good performance of the proposed model in both coastal and open ocean waters, which has the potential to improve our knowledge of the biogeochemical cycles and processes in these domains.