Limits to scale invariance in alluvial rivers

Assumptions about fluvial processes and process–form relations are made in general models and in many site-specific applications. Many standard assumptions about reach-scale flow resistance, bed-material entrainment thresholds and transport rates, and downstream hydraulic geometry involve one or other of two types of scale invariance: a parameter (e.g. critical Shields number) has the same value in all rivers, or doubling one variable causes a fixed proportional change in another variable in all circumstances (e.g. power-law hydraulic geometry). However, rivers vary greatly in size, gradient, and bed material, and many geomorphologists regard particular types of river as distinctive. This review examines the tension between universal scaling assumptions and perceived distinctions between different types of river. It identifies limits to scale invariance and departures from simple scaling, and illustrates them using large data sets spanning a wide range of conditions. Scaling considerations and data analysis support the commonly made distinction between coarse-bed and fine-bed reaches, whose different transport regimes can be traced to the different settling-velocity scalings for coarse and fine grains. They also help identify two end-member sub-types: steep shallow coarse-bed ‘torrents’ with distinctive flow-resistance scaling and increased entrainment threshold, and very large, low-gradient ‘mega rivers’ with predominantly suspended load, subdued secondary circulation, and extensive backwater conditions. © 2020 The Authors. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd     

Flow resistance and hydraulic geometry in bedrock rivers with multiple roughness length scales

Many models of incision by bedrock rivers predict water depth and shear stress from discharge; conversely, palaeoflood discharge is sometimes reconstructed from flow depth markers in rock gorges. In both cases, assumptions are made about flow resistance. The depth–discharge relation in a bedrock river must depend on at least two roughness length scales (exposed rock and sediment cover) and possibly a third (sidewalls). A conceptually attractive way to model the depth–discharge relation in such situations is to partition the total shear stress and friction factor, but it is not obvious how to quantify the friction factor for rough walls in a way that can be used in incision process models. We show that a single flow resistance calculation using a spatially averaged roughness length scale closely approximates the partitioning of stress between sediment and rock, and between bed and walls, in idealized scenarios. Both approaches give closer fits to the measured depth–discharge relations in two small bedrock reaches than can be achieved using a fixed value of Manning's n or the Chézy friction factor. Sidewalls that are substantially rougher or smoother than the bed have a significant effect on the partitioning of shear stress between bed and sidewalls. More research is needed on how best to estimate roughness length scales from observable or measurable channel characteristics. © 2019 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

三江源地区气候变化及其对生态环境的影响

利用EOF等方法通过计算 1 96 2～ 2 0 0 1年 4 0年来三江源地区 1 6个气象台站气温、降水、蒸发资料 ,分析了三江源地区近 4 0年来气候变化的异常特征及其对生态环境的影响 ,结果表明 :三江源地区气候变化表现为气温升高、降水减少和蒸发增大的干旱化气候变化趋势 ,同时 ,在气候干旱化和人为活动的影响下出现了草场退化、湖泊萎缩、河流流量减少、土壤沙化和水土流失等生态环境荒漠化问题。     

三江源地区草地退化对中国区域气候影响的数值模拟研究

人类活动导致的土地利用变化是区域气候变化的一个重要驱动因素.位于青藏高原腹地的三江源地区,生态系统十分脆弱,其独特的地理位置决定了源区的生态环境对中国乃至全球的气候变化、生态环境均有十分重要的影响.该研究应用区域气候模式RegCM3,通过两组数值模拟试验结果的对比分析,探讨三江源地区的草地退化对中国区域气候的影响.模拟试验的区域模式水平分辨率为60 km,模拟区域中心位于35°N,105°E,水平格点数为92×82,相当于5520 km×4920 km的范围.研究结果表明:RegCM3对中国区域气候具有较好的模拟能力,能够用于定量研究土地利用变化对区域气候的影响.三江源地区的草地退化引起的气候变化在不同的地区是不一致的,变化最明显的地区是青藏高原地区.草地退化将会引起青藏高原地区的冬季降温和其他季节升温,气温变化最显著的季节是春季(0.46℃),冬季变化最小(0.03℃);三江源地区的草地退化对中国中、东部地区的气候影响较复杂,主要表现为夏季长江以北地区有不同程度的升、降温现象.由于青藏高原夏季热源作用的加强,导致夏季青藏高原低层大气的热低压有所加强,太平洋副热带高压向东退缩.降水量的变化主要表现在夏季降水的普遍减少.草地退化后,青藏高原地区的气候有向暖于方向发展的趋势.     

Spatial and temporal dynamics of nitrogen exchange in an upwelling reach of a groundwater-fed river and potential response to perturbations changing rainfall patterns under UK climate change scenarios

We report the complex spatial and temporal dynamics of hyporheic exchange flows (HEFs) and nitrogen exchange in an upwelling reach of a 200 m groundwater-fed river. We show how research combining hydrological measurement, geophysics and isotopes, together with nutrient speciation techniques provides insight on nitrogen pathways and transformations that could not have been captured otherwise, including a zone of vertical preferential discharge of nitrate from deeper groundwater, and a zone of rapid denitrification linking the floodplain with the riverbed. Nitrate attenuation in the reach is dominated by denitrification but is spatially highly variable. This variability is driven by groundwater flow pathways and landscape setting, which influences hyporheic flow, residence time and nitrate removal. We observed the spatial connectivity of the river to the riparian zone is important because zones of horizontal preferential discharge supply organic matter from the floodplain and create anoxic riverbed conditions with overlapping zones of nitrification potential and denitrification activity that peaked 10–20 cm below the riverbed. Our data also show that temporal variability in water pathways in the reach is driven by changes in stage of the order of tens of centimetres and by strength of water flux, which may influence the depth of delivery of dissolved organic carbon. The temporal variability is sensitive to changes to river flows under UK climate projections that anticipate a 14%–15% increase in regional median winter rainfall and a 14%–19% reduction in summer rainfall. Superimposed on seasonal projections is more intensive storm activity that will likely lead to a more dynamic and inherently complex (hydrologically and biogeochemically) hyporheic zone. We recorded direct evidence of suppression of upwelling groundwater (flow reversal) during rainfall events. Such flow reversal may fuel riverbed sediments whereby delivery of organic carbon to depth, and higher denitrification rates in HEFs might act in concert to make nitrate removal in the riverbed more efficient.     

Hydrological management strategies for the control of algal blooms in regulated lowland rivers

Reservoirs of lowland floodplain rivers with eutrophic backgrounds cause variations in the hydrological and hydraulic conditions of estuaries and low-dam reservoir areas, which can promote planktonic algae to proliferate and algal bloom outbreaks. Understanding the ecological effects of variations in hydrological and hydraulic processes in lowland rivers is important for algal bloom control. In this study, the middle and lower reaches of the Han River, China, a typical regulated lowland river with a eutrophic background, are selected. Based on the effect of hydrological and hydraulic variability on algal blooms, a hydrological management strategy for river algal bloom control is proposed. The results showed that (a) differences in river morphology and background nutrient levels cause significant differences in the critical threshold flow velocities for algal bloom outbreaks between natural river and low-dam reservoir sections; there is no uniform threshold flow velocity for algal bloom control. (b) There are significant differences in the river hydrological/hydraulic conditions between years with and without algal blooms. The average river flow, water level and velocity in years with algal blooms are significantly lower than those in years without algal blooms. (c) For different river sections where algal blooms occur and to meet the threshold flow velocities, the joint operation of cascade reservoirs and diversion projects is an effective method to prevent and control algal blooms in regulated lowland rivers. This study is expected to deepen our understanding of the ecological significance of special hydrological processes and guide algal bloom management in regulated lowland rivers.     

Simulation of individual particle movement in a gravel streambed

A two‐dimensional simulation model of travel distances of individual particles in a gravel‐bed river is presented. The model is based on a number of rules, which include particle size, entrainment, trajectory, distance of movement and entrapment. Particle interactions are controlled by resistance fields defined about each obstacle and critical elevation defined in the model. Resistance fields, particle dropping and critical elevation rules control particle interactions. The interaction rules cause the particles to develop pebble clusters, stone cells and transverse structures (transverse ribs). The simulated travel distances of individual particles are consistent with reported field results. Individual particle travel distances were simulated using two different models; one without interactions between the individual particles and the stationary bed and one with interactions. The case without interactions demonstrates the random nature of sediment transport, and narrow ranges of travel distances. Wider ranges of travel distances, similar to those for natural situations, were obtained for the cases with interactions. The more intense the interaction between the mobile stones and the stationary ones, the wider the range of distances of travel for a given particle size. Modelling the mean travel distance yielded a result similar to that published previously, which was based on empirical data. Well developed bed‐surface structures were obtained for relatively poorly sorted sediment with intense interactions between particles. Transverse structures developed when relatively large particles were allowed to move. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

水系分维的构造含义

本文运用分数维几何学,研究了河流水系分维与地壳里向运动、活动断裂格局及运动学特征的关联性。结果表明:1)地壳垂向运动控制大型河流主干的总体形态;2)活动断裂格局复杂、水平运动强烈的地区,水系分维值高;3)走滑断裂较斜滑断裂对水系发育的控制强烈,而后者主要起到对水系的分区作用。     

Empirical relationships between diversity of invertebrate communities and altitude in rivers: Application to biomonitoring

The relationships between the diversity of invertebrate communities and the altitude of sampling sites were analysed in 438 benthic samples, collected between 1982 and 1991, in 56 rivers of western Switzerland. Diversity, estimated from total number of taxa (genus or family) and from number of taxa intolerant of pollution, was positively correlated with increasing altitude. In contrast, density of human population and the level of organic pollution were negatively correlated with increasing altitude. Therefore, the upstream increase of invertebrate diversity was attributed to the decrease of human population which is the main source of organic pollution. In this study, altitude was used, instead of organic pollution, to predict diversity. Empirical relationships between diversity and altitude were applied to surveys of water quality to describe the general altitudinal pattern characteristic for each region and to single out anomalous sites and rivers. In addition, changes in the altitudinal patterns of diversity can be used to monitor the recovery of rivers from pollution.