Relief-rejuvenation and topographic length scales in a fluvial drainage basin, Napf area, Central Switzerland

This paper explores how, and to what extent, a phase of relief-rejuvenation modifies the mode of surface erosion in an approximately 63 km² drainage basin located at the northern border of the Swiss Alps (Luzern area). In the study area, the retreat of the Alpine glaciers at the end of the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) caused base level to lower by approximately 80 m. The fluvial system adapted to the lowered base level by headward erosion. This is indicated by knickzones in the longitudinal stream profiles and by the continuous upstream narrowing of the width of the valley floor towards these knickzones. In the headwaters above these knickzones, processes are still to a significant extent controlled by the higher base level of the LGM. There, frequent exposure of bedrock in channels and especially on hillslopes implies that sediment flux is to a large extent limited by weathering rates. In the knickzones, however, exposure of bedrock in channels implies that sediment flux is supply-limited, and that erosion rates are controlled by stream power.The morphometric analysis reveals the existence of length scales in the topography that result from distinct geomorphic processes. Along the tributaries where the upstream sizes of the drainage basins exceed 100,000–200,000 m², the mode of sediment transport and erosion changes from predominantly hillslope processes (i.e., landsliding, creep of regolith, rock avalanches and to some extent debris flows) to processes in channels (fluvial processes and debris flows). This length scale reflects the minimum size of the contributing area for channelized processes to take over in the geomorphic development (i.e., threshold size of drainage basin). This threshold size depends on the ratio between production rates of sediment on hillslopes, and export rates of sediment by processes in channels. Consequently, in the headwaters, erosion rates and sediment flux, and hence landscape evolution rates, are to a large extent limited by weathering processes. In contrast, in the lower portion of the drainage basin that adjusts to the lowered base-level, rates of channelized erosion and relief formation are controlled mainly by stream power. Hence, this paper shows that base-level lowering, headward erosion and establishment of knickzones separate drainage basins in two segments with different controls on rates of surface erosion, sediment flux and relief formation.     

Soil–rock-forming processes and engineering mechanical properties of the ancient gravel stratum near Nanjing, China

The ancient gravel stratum near Nanjing, China, is a major stratum of Cenozoic age along the middle–lower reaches of the Yangtze River. This paper first presents a typical geological profile and material composition of the ancient gravel stratum, and then discusses its geologic origin, soil–rock-forming processes, engineering mechanical properties, and their relations. These analyses are useful for city planning, geotechnical engineering, construction, and characterization of the geological environment in the Nanjing area.     

Geochemical characteristics of mineral air particles emitted inside a clay atomisation plant which introduces waste recycling processes

The objective of this work is to assess the concentrations of three factions of air particles (settable particles, TSP and PM10) and the levels of several toxic elements in a clay atomisation industry through aerosol sampling at several points inside an industrial plant. Mechanical activities, which produce diffuse emissions, are the main process of discharge of particles in both indoor and outdoor workplace environments in the atomisation plant. The levels of As, Cd, Pb, Zn, Ba and Ni increase in the zones with higher concentrations of particles and lower ventilation. The concentrations of As and F are not influenced by the recycling processes. The levels of Cd and Pb do not show great enrichment in air particles collected inside the atomisation plant although the content of both elements is associated with ceramic muck recycling. Finally, the content of B in waste water is mainly transferred in gaseous phase to the atmosphere during the process of drying by atomisation.     

地质微生物地球化学作用的意义与展望

概要论述了地质微生物学、地下水微生态学、微生物地球化学作用的基本概念、研究内容、研究现状、科学意义、关键问题、发展前景和在地下水环境保护中的作用。该研究领域不仅拓宽了整个地质科学的研究范畴,而且推动了地质科学的发展,具有一定的创新性。     

9: Processes of tectonism, magmatism and mineralization: Lessons from Europe

Metallogenic provinces in Europe range in age from the Archaean to the Neogene. Deposit types include porphyry copper and epithermal Cu–Au, volcanic-hosted massive sulphide (VMS), orogenic gold, Fe-oxide–Cu–Au, anorthosite Fe–Ti-oxide and sediment-hosted base-metal deposits. Most of them formed during short-lived magmatic events in a wide range of tectonic settings; many can be related to specific tectonic processes such as subduction, hinge retreat, accretion of island arcs, continental collision, lithosphere delamination or slab tear. In contrast, most sediment-hosted deposits in Europe evolved in extensional, continental settings over significant periods of time. In Europe, as elsewhere, ore formation is an integral part of the geodynamic evolution of the Earth's crust and mantle. Many tectonic settings create conditions conducive to the generation of water-rich magma, but the generation of ore deposits appears to be restricted to locations and short periods of change in temperature and stress, imposed by transitory plate motions. Crustal influence is evident in the strong structural controls on the location and morphology of many ore deposits in Europe. Crustal-scale fault–fracture systems, many involving strike-slip elements, have provided the fabric for major plumbing systems. Rapid uplift, as in metamorphic core complexes, and hydraulic fracturing can generate or focus magmatic–hydrothermal fluid flow that may be active for time spans significantly less than a million years. Once a hydrologically stable flow is established, ore formation is strongly dependent on the steep temperature and pressure gradients experienced by the fluid, particularly within the upper crust. In Europe, significant fracture porosity deep in the crystalline basement (1%) is not only important for magmatic–hydrothermal systems, but allows brines to circulate down through sedimentary basins and then episodically upward, expelled seismically to produce sediment-hosted base-metal deposits and Kupferschiefer copper deposits. Emerging research, stimulated by GEODE, can improve the predicting power of numerical simulations of ore-forming processes and help discover the presence of orebodies beneath barren overburden.     

Geochemical and isotopic investigation of the aquifer system in the Djerid-Nefzaoua basin, southern Tunisia

In the Djerid-Nefzaoua region, southern Tunisia, about 80% of agricultural and domestic water supply is provided by the complex terminal (CT) aquifer. However, 20% of this demand is provided by other hydraulically connected aquifers, namely the continental intercalaire (CI) and the Plio-Quaternary (PQ). Overexploitation of the CT aquifer for agricultural practices has contributed to the loss of the artesian condition and the decline of groundwater level which largely increased the downward leakage from the shallow PQ aquifer. Excess irrigation water concentrates at different rates in the irrigation channels and in the PQ aquifer itself. Then, it returns to the CT aquifer and mixes with water from the regional flow system, which contributes to the salinization of the CT groundwater. A geochemical and isotopic study had been undertaken over a 2-years period in order to investigate the origin of waters pumped from the CT aquifer with an emphasis on its hydraulic relationships with the underlying and the overlying CI and PQ aquifers. Geochemistry indicates that groundwater samples collected from different wells show an evolution of the water types from Na-Cl to Ca-SO₄-Cl. Dissolution of halite, gypsum and anhydrite-bearing rocks is the main mechanism that leads to the salinization of the groundwater. Isotopic data indicate the old origin of all groundwater in the aquifer system. Mixing and evaporation effects characterizing the CT and the PQ aquifers were identified using δ²H and δ¹⁸O relationship and confirmed by the conjunction of δ²H with chloride concentration.     

Characterizing spatial and temporal variation in 18O and 2H content of New Zealand river water for better understanding of hydrologic processes

Time series of hydrogen and oxygen stable isotope ratios (δ²H and δ¹⁸O) in rivers can be used to quantify groundwater contributions to streamflow, and timescales of catchment storage. However, these isotope hydrology techniques rely on distinct spatial or temporal patterns of δ²H and δ¹⁸O within the hydrologic cycle. In New Zealand, lack of understanding of spatial and temporal patterns of δ²H and δ¹⁸O of river water hinders development of regional and national-scale hydrological models. We measured δ²H and δ¹⁸O monthly, together with river flow rates at 58 locations across New Zealand over a two-year period. Results show: (a) general patterns of decreasing δ²H and δ¹⁸O with increasing latitude were altered by New Zealand's major mountain ranges; δ²H and δ¹⁸O were distinctly lower in rivers fed from higher elevation catchments, and in eastern rain-shadow areas of both islands; (b) river water δ²H and δ¹⁸O values were partly controlled by local catchment characteristics (catchment slope, PET, catchment elevation, and upstream lake area) that influence evaporation processes; (c) regional differences in evaporation caused the slope of the river water line (i.e., the relationship between δ²H and δ¹⁸O in river water) for the (warmer) North Island to be lower than that of the (cooler, mountain-dominated) South Island; (d) δ²H seasonal offsets (i.e., the difference between seasonal peak and mean values) for individual sites ranged from 0.50‰ to 5.07‰. Peak values of δ¹⁸O and δ²H were in late summer, but values peaked 1 month later at the South Island sites, likely due to greater snow-melt contributions to streamflow. Strong spatial differences in river water δ²H and δ¹⁸O caused by orographic rainfall effects and evaporation may inform studies of water mixing across landscapes. Generally distinct seasonal isotope cycles, despite the large catchment sizes of rivers studied, are encouraging for transit time analysis applications.     

A hydropedological approach to simulate streamflow and soil water contents with SWAT+

Reflecting internal catchment hydrological processes in hydrological models is important for accurate predictions of the impact of climate and land-use change on water resources. Characterizing these processes is however difficult and expensive due to their dynamic nature and spatio-temporal variability. Hydropedology is a relatively new discipline focusing on the synergistic integration of hydrology, soil physics and pedology. Hydropedological interpretations of soils and soil distribution can be used to characterize key hydrological processes, especially in areas with no or limited hydrometric measurements. Here we applied a hydropedological approach to reflect flowpaths through detailed routing in SWAT+ for a 157 ha catchment (Weatherley) in South Africa. We compared the hydropedological approach and a standard (no routing) approach against measured streamflow (two weirs) and soil water contents (13 locations). The catchment was treated as ‘ungauged’ and the model was not calibrated against hydrometric measurements in order to determine the direct contribution of hydropedology on modelling efficiency. Streamflow was predicted well without calibration (NSE > 0.8; R² > 0.82) for both approaches at both weirs. The standard approach yielded slightly better streamflow predictions. The hydropedological approach resulted in considerable improvements in the simulation of soil water contents (R² increased from 0.40 to 0.49 and PBIAS decreased from 40% to 20%). The routing capacity of SWAT+ as employed in the hydropedological approach reduced the underestimation of wetland water regimes drastically and resulted in a more accurate representation of the dominant hydrological processes in this catchment. We concluded that hydropedology can be a valuable source of ‘soft data’ to reflect internal catchment structure and processes and, potentially, for realistic calibrations in other studies, especially those conducted in areas with limited hydrometric measurements.     

广西官村岩溶溪流中生物地球化学控制的DIC和NO3-昼夜变化研究

为了解岩溶区控制溪流中溶解无机碳(DIC)和NO_3~-昼夜变化的生物地球化学过程以及DIC和NO_3~-日变化量,于2014-07-22~2014-07-24期间,在广西壮族自治区融安县官村溪流中包括地下河出口(CK)和下游雷崖村(LY)设置两个监测点同时对水体物理化学参数以及C、N同位素(δ~(13) CDIC、δ~(15) N-NO_3~-和δ~(18) O-NO_3~-)展开了为期2d的高分辨率昼夜监测采样工作。结果发现CK点各物理化学参数没有表现出昼夜变化,但是LY点Ca2+、DIC以及PCO2表现出明显的昼夜变化规律,即白天下降夜间上升且与DO和pH表现出明显的负相关关系。相对于CK点,在白天水生光合生物光合作用导致LY点DIC下降的同时δ~(13) CDIC上升,而在夜间呼吸作用导致LY点DIC上升的同时δ~(13) CDIC下降且部分时间段要低于CK点δ~(13) CDIC值。溪流中的NH4+在监测期间基本上都在下降而NO_3~-离子在夜间和上午时间段都在上升,δ~(15) N-NO_3~-却表现出下降的趋势,且比较接近δ~(15) N-NO_3~-初始值,而NO_3~-离子在下午时间段出现下降的趋势。结果表明溪流中DIC昼夜变化主要受到水生植物的光合作用和呼吸作用控制,且通过质量平衡方程计算得知溪流中由于光合作用吸收无机碳而转为有机碳的量为0.94kgC/d,这部分有机碳可以形成相对长期稳定的自然C汇。溪流在夜间和上午时间段发生了N的硝化作用,增长量为2.08kgN/d,但在下午时间段(12:00~18:00)发生了N的同化作用,损失量为0.42kgN/d。溪流输出的NO_3~--N的量为1.66kgN/d,表明在富碳、富钙的岩溶溪流中,有利于水生光合生物的生长,促进N的同化作用的发生,从而减少溪流输出NO_3~--N的量,说明岩溶区溪流N的生物地球化学过程可能在昼夜尺度上改变水质。