The Shared Socioeconomic Pathways and their energy,land use,and greenhouse gas emissions implications: An overview

This paper presents the overview of the Shared Socioeconomic Pathways (SSPs) and their energy, land use, and emissions implications. The SSPs are part of a new scenario framework, established by the climate change research community in order to facilitate the integrated analysis of future climate impacts, vulnerabilities, adaptation, and mitigation. The pathways were developed over the last years as a joint community effort and describe plausible major global developments that together would lead in the future to different challenges for mitigation and adaptation to climate change. The SSPs are based on five narratives describing alternative socio-economic developments, including sustainable development, regional rivalry, inequality, fossil-fueled development, and middle-of-the-road development. The long-term demographic and economic projections of the SSPs depict a wide uncertainty range consistent with the scenario literature. A multi-model approach was used for the elaboration of the energy, land-use and the emissions trajectories of SSP-based scenarios. The baseline scenarios lead to global energy consumption of 400–1200 EJ in 2100, and feature vastly different land-use dynamics, ranging from a possible reduction in cropland area up to a massive expansion by more than 700 million hectares by 2100. The associated annual CO₂ emissions of the baseline scenarios range from about 25 GtCO₂ to more than 120 GtCO₂ per year by 2100. With respect to mitigation, we find that associated costs strongly depend on three factors: (1) the policy assumptions, (2) the socio-economic narrative, and (3) the stringency of the target. The carbon price for reaching the target of 2.6 W/m² that is consistent with a temperature change limit of 2 °C, differs in our analysis thus by about a factor of three across the SSP marker scenarios. Moreover, many models could not reach this target from the SSPs with high mitigation challenges. While the SSPs were designed to represent different mitigation and adaptation challenges, the resulting narratives and quantifications span a wide range of different futures broadly representative of the current literature. This allows their subsequent use and development in new assessments and research projects. Critical next steps for the community scenario process will, among others, involve regional and sectoral extensions, further elaboration of the adaptation and impacts dimension, as well as employing the SSP scenarios with the new generation of earth system models as part of the 6th climate model intercomparison project (CMIP6).     

中国干湿区变化与预估

本文采用干湿指数对1962~2011年中国干湿区范围变化进行了集中分析,并利用CMIP5（Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 5）模式对其变化趋势开展了预估研究。结果表明,1962~2011年平均极端干旱区、干旱区、半干旱区、半湿润区和湿润区分别占中国陆地总面积的2.8%、11.7%、22.4%、32.6%和30.5%。期间,中国区域年干湿指数总体上呈现下降趋势,空间上表现为西部湿润化和东部干旱化的特征。显著缩小的是湿润区和极端干旱区,半湿润区、半干旱区和干旱区则显著扩大,这表明中国气候敏感区域在扩张。春季和秋季干湿指数变化趋势的空间分布与年平均的较为一致,冬季西北呈干旱化,夏季东南部地区为湿润化。相对于参考时段1986~2005年,在RCP4.5（Representative Concentration Pathway 4.5）情景下18个气候模式中位数的预估结果中,降水仅在东南南部减少,而潜在蒸散发在全区域增加,由于潜在蒸散发的增量超过了降水的增幅,中国区域将整体趋于干旱化,仅在西北地区呈湿润化特征;未来湿润区、干旱区和极端干旱区缩小,气候敏感性高的半湿润区和半干旱区仍将扩大。     

CMIP5多模式集合对南亚印度河流域气候变化的模拟与预估

利用印度河流域CRU、APHRODITE和CMIP5多模式逐月气温、降水格点数据集, 评估了CMIP5模式集合对印度河流域气候变化的模拟能力; 对多模式集合数据进行了偏差订正, 并对流域2046-2065年和2081-2100年气候变化进行了预估. 结果表明: 气候模式对流域年平均气温时间变化和空间分布特征有着较强的模拟能力, 时间空间相关系数均达到了0.01的显著性水平, 尤其对夏季气温的模拟要优于其他季节; 模式对降水的季节性波动也有着较好的模拟能力. 偏差订正后的预估结果表明, RCP2.6、4.5、8.5情景下, 相对于基准期(1986-2005年), 21世纪中期(2046-2065年)和末期(2081-2100年)整个流域年平均气温都有一定上升, 且流域上游增幅较大; 除RCP4.5情景下21世纪中期流域有弱减少趋势外, 年降水量都将有一定增长. 未来夏季持续升温将引起源区冰川的进一步消融, 春季降水对于中高海拔地区水资源的贡献将减弱; 流域北部高海拔区域冬季降水的增加有助冰川累积和上游水资源的增加, 东部高海拔区域冬季降水的减少会减少上游水资源. 两时期夏季降水都有一定的增长, 洪涝的发生风险加大; 流域暖事件和强降水事件也将可能增多.     

Simulation and Projection of the Western Pacific Subtropical High in CMIP5 Models

This work examined the performance of 26 coupled climate models participating in the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 5 （CMIP5） in the simulation of the present-day temporal variability and spatial pattern of the western Pacifi c subtropical high （WPSH）. The results show that most models are able to capture the spatial distribution and variability of the 500-hPa geopotential height and zonal wind fi elds in the western subtropical Pacifi c, but with underestimated mean intensity of the WPSH. The underestimation may be associated with the cold bias of sea surface temperature in the tropical Indian and western Pacifi c oceans in the models. To eliminate the impact of the climatology biases, the climatology of these models is replaced by that of the NCEP/NCAR reanalysis in the verifi cation, and the models reproduce the WPSH’s enhancement and westward extension after the late 1970s. According to assessment of the simulated WPSH indices, it is found that some models （CNRM-CM5, FGOALS-g2, FIO-ESM, MIROC-ESM, and MPI-ESM-P） are better than others in simulating WPSH. Then, the ensemble mean of these better models is used to pro ject the future changes of WPSH under three representative concentration pathway scenarios （RCP8.5, RCP4.5, and RCP2.6）. The WPSH enlarges, strengthens, and extends westward under all the scenarios, with the largest linear growth trend projected in RCP8.5, smallest in RCP2.6, and in between in RCP4.5;while the ridge line of WPSH shows no obvious long-term trend. These results may have implications for the attribution and prediction of climate variations and changes in East Asia.     

Projection of PM2.5 and Ozone Concentration Changes over the Jing-Jin-Ji Region in China

Based on GISS-E2-R model simulations, the changes in PM2.5 and ozone concentrations during 2016– 35 are analyzed over the Jing-Jin-Ji region under different future emissions scenarios: 2.6, 4.5, 6.0, 8.5 Representative Concentration Pathways scenarios(RCP2.6, RCP4.5, RCP6.0, and RCP8.5), compared to the baseline periods of 1851–70(pre-industrial) and 1986–2005(present day). The results show that PM2.5 increases under all emissions scenarios, with the maximum value occurring in the southeastern part of the region under most scenarios. As for ozone, its concentration is projected to increase during 2016–35 under all emissions scenarios, compared to the baseline periods. The temporal evolutions of PM2.5 and ozone show PM2.5 reaching a peak during 2020–40, while ozone will likely increase steadily in the future.     

气候变化对雨养冬小麦水分利用效率的影响估算

研究气候变化对雨养冬小麦水分利用效率的影响规律,可为农业适应气候变化提供科学依据。通过构建代表站雨养冬小麦产量和土壤水分变化量的模拟方程,分析水分利用效率的历史变化,并结合两种区域气候模式PRECIS和REGCM4.0输出的4种不同气候变化情景资料,估算未来2021—2050年雨养冬小麦水分利用效率的可能变化。结果表明:1981—2010年甘肃、山西和河南代表站的雨养冬小麦水分利用效率呈二次曲线变化趋势,最大值出现在2003年前后。4种气候变化情景的模拟结果均显示:2021—2050年冬小麦全生育期耗水量明显增加,各代表站不同情景平均增加6.2%;产量有增有减,平均产量变化率为1.4%;水分利用效率平均减小3.8%,且变率减小。区域气候模式PRECIS估算的水分利用效率的减小量A2情景大于B2情景,REGCM4.0模式估算的水分利用效率的减小量RCP8.5情景大于RCP4.5情景。整体来看,RCP气候情景对雨养冬小麦水分利用效率的负面影响更大。     

未来气候情景下冬小麦潜在北移区农业气候资源变化特征

基于区域气候模式系统PRECIS输出的RCP4.5气候情景数据分析表明,相较于1981-2010年,至2071-2097年冬小麦种植北界将平均向北移动147.8 km,北移面积约1.86×105 km²。选取代表光、温、水资源的9项农业气候资源指标,探究未来情景下,2021-2097年冬小麦潜在北移区内农业气候资源变化特征,结果表明：(1)相较于基准时段(1961-1990年),未来潜在北移区内光照资源变化呈减少趋势;热量资源呈明显增加趋势,在21世纪末的30年,波动性加大;降水资源整体增加趋势不明显,但波动性亦呈现增大趋势。(2)未来潜在北移区内,2030T (2021-2050年)、2050T (2041-2070年)和2070T (2061-2090年)时段光照资源在研究区域的东北部减少幅度较大,而在西南部较小;热量资源在研究区域的北部增加比南部明显;降水资源则主要在研究区域的东北部增加明显。     

CMIP5多模式资料中气温的BMA预测方法研究

利用CMIP5的8个全球气候系统模式对气温的回报结果进行贝叶斯模式平均(简称BMA)试验,并采用均方根误差、距平相关系数、连续等级概率评分等对多模式集合平均(简称EMN)和BMA的回报结果进行检验、评估。结果表明,EMN的回报效果优于8个单模式的回报效果,而BMA的回报效果最好,其区域平均的均方根误差比EMN小0.5℃左右。在此基础上,利用中等排放情景RCP4.5下CMIP5模式中的年际年代际预估资料对2011—2035年的气温进行预估。研究发现东亚地区在2011—2035年气温将普遍升高,海洋上的增暖幅度较小,陆地上的增暖幅度较大,且增暖幅度随纬度升高而增大。青藏高原及中国北方大部分地区气温将明显升高,升温幅度在1℃左右,而南方的升温幅度较小,约为0.3~0.6℃。     

CMIP5模式对未来升温情景下全球陆地生态系统净初级生产力变化的预估

针对《巴黎协定》提出的温控目标,利用耦合模式比较计划第五阶段（CMIP5）模式在RCP2.6、RCP4.5和RCP8.5情景下的模拟结果,初步分析了全球升温情景下陆地生态系统净初级生产力（NPP）相对于参考时段（1986—2005年）的变化,重点分析了1.5℃和2℃升温时NPP相对于参考时段的变化量,并探讨了大气CO₂浓度、气温、降水和辐射的变化及其对NPP变化的影响。CMIP5基于各典型浓度路径模拟的全球陆地生态系统NPP均呈增加趋势,且NPP增加量与升温幅度成正比。在相同的升温幅度下,基于各典型浓度路径模拟的各环境因子和NPP的变化量较为一致。陆地生态系统NPP总量增加主要由大气CO₂浓度上升驱动,其他环境因子的影响相对较弱。中国东南部、非洲中部、美国东南部和亚马孙雨林西部地区NPP增加最明显。NPP变化量的空间格局主要由大气CO₂浓度增加和升温控制,降水和辐射的影响相对较小。具体而言,大气CO₂浓度上升对中低纬度的NPP变化贡献最大,对北方高纬度地区NPP变化贡献较小。温度上升有利于促进北方高纬度地区和青藏高原地区NPP,但对中低纬度地区的NPP有较强的抑制作用。鉴于既有典型浓度路径和地球系统模型的限制,本文对未来升温情景下陆地生态系统NPP的预估仍存在较大的不确定性,需要在未来的研究中进一步改进。