Ecological status of seagrass ecosystems: An uncertainty analysis of the meadow classification based on the Posidonia oceanica multivariate index (POMI)

Quantifying the uncertainty associated with monitoring protocols is essential to prevent the misclassification of ecological status and to improve sampling design. We assessed the Posidonia oceanica multivariate index (POMI) bio-monitoring program for its robustness in classifying the ecological status of coastal waters within the Water Framework Directive. We used a 7-year data set covering 30 sites along 500 km of the Catalonian coastline to examine which version of POMI (14 or 9 metrics) maximises precision in classifying the ecological status of meadows. Five factors (zones within a site, sites within a water body, depth, years and surveyors) that potentially generate classification uncertainty were examined in detail. Of these, depth was a major source of uncertainty, while all the remaining spatial and temporal factors displayed low variability. POMI 9 matched POMI 14 in all factors, and could effectively replace it in future monitoring programs.     

青藏高原羌塘盆地早侏罗世晚期海螂蛤页岩及其年代地层学意义

发现于德国南部的早侏罗世土亚辛期的海螂蛤页岩相沉积是中生代最早一次,也是唯一保存在大陆地层中的全球性大洋缺氧事件的典型代表。近年中国羌塘盆地已相继发现4处海螂蛤页岩相地层。北羌塘天然气水合物钻探试验井QK-5井钻遇含海螂蛤页岩相特有化石组合的地层,厚度逾150m,是迄今所知羌塘盆地纬度最高的海螂蛤页岩相产地,其他3处分布在羌塘盆地中间隆起带以南的双湖和色哇等地。海螂蛤页岩相的分布纵贯南、北羌塘,意味着羌塘盆地在早侏罗世并没有受到中间隆起带的制约而分成南、北2个独立的沉积凹陷。北羌塘西部白龙冰河、半岛湖一带与东部雀莫措、雁石坪一带的早侏罗世沉积相截然不同,形成早侏罗世西海东陆的沉积格局。海螂蛤页岩相在羌塘盆地的发现,有助于进一步认识中生代羌塘盆地沉积和古海洋演化历史。该区以海螂蛤黑色页岩为代表的富碳沉积无论是分布面积还是沉积厚度都十分可观,对盆地的天然气水合物、页岩气及常规油气勘探具有重要的意义。     

Welcome mats? The role of seagrass meadow structure in controlling post-settlement survival in a keystone sea-urchin species

Processes acting on the early-life histories of marine organisms can have important consequences for the structuring of benthic communities. In particular, the degree of coupling between larval supply and adult abundances can wield considerable influence on the strength of trophic interactions in the ecosystem. These processes have been relatively well described in rocky systems and soft-sediment communities, and it is clear that they are governed by very different bottlenecks. Seagrass meadows make interesting study systems because they bear structural affinities to both soft sediments as well as rocky substrates. We examined the early-life history of Paracentrotus lividus, one of the dominant herbivores in Mediterranean seagrass meadows, to identify the drivers of population dynamics in this species. We measured spatial and temporal variability in sea urchin post-settlement in 10 Posidonia oceanica meadows in the North-Western Mediterranean over a period of two years, and compared the numbers with the one-year old cohort a year later (i.e. the new population recruitment) as well as between successive size–age groups. Urchin post-settlers differed substantially between meadows but were present in both years in all meadows surveyed, suggesting that larval supply was not limiting for any of the studied sites. However, in six of the studied meadows, the one-year cohort of urchins was absent in both years, indicating that post-settlement processes strongly affected urchins in these meadows. In contrast, in four of the studied meadows, there was a strong coupling between post-settlers and one-year cohort individuals. These meadows were structurally different from the others in that they were characterised by an exposed matrix of rhizomes forming a dense seagrass mat. This mat apparently strongly mediates post-settlement mortality, and its presence or absence dictates the successful establishment of urchin populations in seagrass meadows. As the population aged, the relationship between size–age groups decreased evidencing the action of other processes. Yet, these results indicate that differences in physical structure are a vital bottleneck for sea urchin populations in seagrass meadows. Exploring the interaction between ecosystem structure and early-life history may provide a broader and more unified framework to understand the dynamics of a range of benthic habitats, including rocky substrates, soft sediments and seagrass meadows.     

Growth Dynamics in Posidonia oceanica (L.) Delile

Abstract. Amounts of photosynthate in the rhizomes, in photosynthetically inactive basal parts of the leaves and different old leaf blades were examined. Winter leaf growth was supported by mobilisation of starch in the rhizome. This winter growth enables Posidonia oceanica to utilize the increased energy influx in early spring via the substantial leaf area already developed and to approach highest productivity in spring. During summer and autumn considerable concentrations of soluble carbohydrates were found in the leaves and rhizomes. Starch was stored in the rhizomes in concentrations of up to 6.8 % of dry weight. Levels of nitrogen and free amino acids were correlated with growth rates. The percentage of total nitrogen present as free amino acid-nitrogen decreased from November (35 %) to summer (less than 1 %), by which time leaf growth had stopped. In contrast to this, amounts of organic anions were low in winter and spring and reached their maximum in summer.
Within a shoot, sites of leaf growth were characterized by high amounts of total nitrogen and free amino acids (innermost leaves), while carbon Fixation was highest in the leaves #2–#4. Particularly high concentrations of soluble carbohydrates were found midway along leaf blades.
It is evident that this unusual growth rhythm of Posidonia oceanica was only possible because of the ability to store considerable amounts of carbon and nitrogen in the rhizomes.
The results of this investigation demonstrate on the one hand that the chemical composition of the plant is strongly correlated with growth and production, and on the other hand that it is dependent on environmental factors, such as energy influx and temperature, which change with season.     

Temporal and Morphological Variations of Growth in a Natural Stand of Posidonia oceanica (L.) Delile*

Abstract. Growth of Posidonia oceanica (L.) DELILE was studied in a natural stand in 4 m depth at Ischia (Gulf of Naples). Renewal and growth of leaves was continuous throughout the year but showed strong seasonal modulation. The major factor for individual leaf growth as well as for the seasonal aspects of the entire foliage is seasonal modulation of leaf appearance rather than of leaf growth. Leaf area index varied between 2 nm² m^-2 in autumn and 6 m² m^-2 in late summer. Annual production is estimated to be 613 g dw m^-2 for leaf blades, 54 g dw m^-2 for leaf sheaths, and 27 g dw m^-2 for rhizomes. Rhizome production is highly different between the primary and the secondary growth axis (274 versus 30 mg dw -shoot^-1 y^-1 respectively) in plagiotrope growth. Both foliage and rhizome growth are positively correlated with leaf width.     

Modelling formation of complex topography by the seagrass Posidonia oceanica

Posidonia oceanica is a slow growing seagrass species that extends via growing rhizomes that grow only centimetres both horizontally and vertically each year. Posidonia oceanica forms topographically complex biogenic reefs of dead rhizome and sediments that are up to 4 m in height that are called “matte”. This study investigates the role of slow horizontal and vertical growth of rhizomes in the formation of topographic complexity in P. oceanica matte using agent-based modelling. The simulated infilling of landscapes by P. oceanica was run over 600 iterations (years) for 10 random starts of 150 agents each. Initial infilling rates were very slow and P. oceanica had limited cover after a century of growth. Growth accelerated after 100 years but plateaued after 400 years such that after 600 years only two-thirds of the landscape was occupied by P. oceanica. The pattern of spread of agents was initially random in direction but after larger patches were formed spread was radial from these patches. The seagrass landscape was initially highly fragmented with many small separate patches made up of a few agents each, with a Landscape Division index close to 1. Between 300 and 600 years Landscape Division declined sharply to 0.42, indicating patches had coalesced into larger more continuous meadows forming a less fragmented landscape. Perimeter to area ratio of seagrass patches declined exponentially from >1 to approximately 0.2 over 600 years of simulation. The matte developed from growth of patches and its greatest height occurred in more continuously occupied cells of the grid. The topography of the reef that occupied two-thirds of the landscape after six centuries of growth could be described as a pattern of channels between reef plateaus elevated 1–2 m above channels. These results demonstrate that development in P. oceanica meadows of three-dimensional structure, in the formation of biogenic reefs, can be explained by, and is an emergent property of, slow horizontal and vertical rhizome growth rates combined with the time it takes for the accumulation of rhizomes in any region of the landscape. As such, the model provides a parsimonious explanation for the development of complex matte topography.     

The use of surface alkaline phosphatase activity in the seagrass Posidonia oceanica as a biomarker of eutrophication

Eutrophication is one of the most relevant man‐induced changes occurring in coastal waters. The identification and assessment of specific responses to eutrophication in seagrasses can provide a useful tool for the detection of changes in the water quality in coastal zones, given the wide range of distribution of these organisms. In this study, we combine a correlational (across‐sites comparison) and a manipulative (fertilization experiment) approach to evaluate the usefulness and potential of alkaline phosphatase activity (APA) in the endemic Mediterranean seagrass Posidonia oceanica as an eutrophication biomarker. Our results showed that APA decreases promptly following nutrient additions, the response being maintained except during the winter period. APA also varies across natural meadows under different levels of nutrient discharges at scales relevant for monitoring purposes. AP activity seems to be an optimal ‘physiological biomarker’ that responds promptly and reliably to a pulse of eutrophication exposure. However, other considerations, such as the seasonality (the response disappears in winter), suggest its use with some caution and, as far as possible, as a complement of other bio‐indicators.     

Architectural characteristics of two bed types of the seagrass Posidonia oceanica over different spatial scales

Seagrass beds occur in various morphological forms, ranging from small patches to continuous meadows. The endemic Mediterranean seagrass Posidonia oceanica forms dense and extensive stands that occur in several different morphotypes, including reticulate (seagrass interspersed with a different habitat type, such as bare sand) and continuous beds. This study, undertaken in the Maltese Islands, examined whether reticulate and continuous P. oceanica beds, located adjacent to each other and at similar depths, had different within-bed architectural characteristics. Five commonly used architectural measures (shoot density, number of leaves per shoot, mean leaf length, mean leaf width and shoot biomass) were measured from P. oceanica shoots collected from the two bed types at three different spatial scales: (1) tens of metres (‘small’ scale); (2) hundreds of metres (‘medium’ scale); and (3) kilometres (‘large’ scale). Results of 2-factor ANOVA (factor 1=bed type; factor 2=sampling locality) carried out at the three spatial scales indicated significant differences between the two bed types in shoot density (P<0.01) and leaf length (P<0.05) at the small scale, and in leaf number (P<0.05) at the large scale. Significant interactions were also apparent for shoot density (at the large scale) and for shoot biomass (at the medium scale). However, the results obtained did not indicate consistent architectural differences between the two P. oceanica bed types over the spatial scales considered. Spatial variations in within-bed architectural characteristics observed were therefore thought to be attributable mainly to the influence of local environmental factors. The findings are discussed with reference to the conservation and management of P. oceanica habitat.     

Ecological Differences in the Distribution of two Tethya (Porifera, Demospongiae) Species Coexisting in a Mediterranean Coastal Lagoon

Abstract. In the Sicilian lagoon Stagnone di Marsala, Tethya aurantium and T. citrina show different ecological distributions, although some overlapping occurs. The first species reaches its highest density where linear currents are maximal, and in this habitat it is particularly frequent on Posidonia oceanica rhizomes. The second species is more abundant in still water locations and is equally common on Posidonia rhizomes and on calcareous concretions. Such distributions can be related to water movement, Posidonia shoot density, and associated factors such as sedimentation and food availability. These observations are consistent with an adaptive interpretation of the morphofunctional features distinguishing the two species.