张其昀的地理思想和学术成就

张其昀(1901—1985)是我国近代地理学的创建者之一。他在地理教育以及人文地理学的广泛领域卓有建树。本文阐述他的学术成就,并探讨他的地理思想。     

The most-cited works in Geomorphology

We conducted a review and analysis of the references cited in articles published (1995–2004) in the journal Geomorphology and also solicited comments from the authors of the most-cited works on their major influences. Of the 31,696 unique works cited in the journal, only 22 were referenced at least 20 times, with the vast majority (92%) cited only once or twice. We divided the citations into the 10 most-cited books (i.e., complete volumes) and 10 most-cited papers (i.e., journal articles, book chapters, reports). A total of 23 different researchers were responsible for the 20 works, with one (Wolman) being an author or co-author of a quarter of them. Seven of the ten most-cited papers were based on work in the USGS in the mid-twentieth century, indicating a particularly fruitful time of geomorphic research and a particularly important cohort of scientists. Based on our citation analysis and author commentaries, we suggest that classic works in geomorphology are most likely to be those that provide useful knowledge and those that incorporate interdisciplinary perspectives.     

The Integrated Global Geodetic Observing System (IGGOS) viewed from the perspective of history

Towards the end of the 19th century, geodetic observation techniques allowed it to create geodetic networks of continental size. The insight that big networks can only be set up through international collaboration led to the establishment of an international collaboration called “Central European Arc Measurement”, the predecessor of the International Association of Geodesy (IAG), in 1864. The scope of IAG activities was extended already in the 19th century to include gravity.At the same time, astrometric observations could be made with an accuracy of a few tenths of an arcsecond. The accuracy stayed roughly on this level, till the space age opened the door for milliarcsecond (mas) astrometry. Astrometric observations allowed it at the end of the 19th century to prove the existence of polar motion. The insight that polar motion is almost unpredictable led to the establishment of the International Latitude Service (ILS) in 1899.The IAG and the ILS were the tools (a) to establish and maintain the terrestrial and the celestial reference systems, including the transformation parameters between the two systems, and (b) to determine the Earth's gravity field.Satellite-geodetic techniques and astrometric radio-interferometric techniques revolutionized geodesy in the second half of the 20th century. Satellite Laser Ranging (SLR) and methods based on the interferometric exploitation of microwave signals (stemming from Quasars and/or from satellites) allow it to realize the celestial reference frame with (sub-)mas accuracy, the global terrestrial reference frame with (sub-)cm accuracy, and to monitor the transformation between the systems with a high time resolution and (sub-)mas accuracy. This development led to the replacement of the ILS through the IERS, the International Earth Rotation Service in 1989.In the pre-space era, the Earth's gravity field could “only” be established by terrestrial methods. The determination of the Earth's gravitational field was revolutionized twice in the space era, first by observing geodetic satellites with optical, Laser, and Doppler techniques, secondly by implementing a continuous tracking with spaceborne GPS receivers in connection with satellite gradiometry. The sequence of the satellite gravity missions CHAMP, GRACE, and GOCE allow it to name the first decade of the 21st century the “decade of gravity field determination”.The techniques to establish and monitor the geometric and gravimetric reference frames are about to reach a mature state and will be the prevailing geodetic tools of the following decades. It is our duty to work in the spirit of our forefathers by creating similarly stable organizations within IAG with the declared goal to produce the geometric and gravimetric reference frames (including their time evolution) with the best available techniques and to make accurate and consistent products available to wider Earth sciences community as a basis for meaningful research in global change. IGGOS, the Integrated Global Geodetic Observing System, is IAG's attempt to achieve these goals. It is based on the well-functioning and well-established network of IAG services.     

Letters from Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero to Aimé Laussedat: new sources for the history of nineteenth century geodesy

Recently found letters written by Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero (1825–1891), first president of the International Geodetic Association, to geodesist–photogrammetrist Aimé Laussedat (1819–1907) are discussed. The contents of these epistolary conversations reflect their personal preoccupation with solving the geodetic problems of the time (1857–1889) and their desire to develop and propagate geodetic knowledge across all international boundaries.     

先秦测绘史考

介绍先秦时期，包括三皇五帝传说时期，以及夏、商、西周、春秋，占国时代的测绘历史，并对先秦的时间上限选择，测绘史迹从神化到人化的演化，测绘学由潜科学到显科学的转变等问题进行了论述。     

Im Blick zurück ein Schritt nach vorn: ein Beitrag zum Verhältnis von Limnologie und Geschichte

Most scientists tend to ignore the history of their own discipline, at best it occurs as a sort of ‘big names history’. History is thought to be useless or at least irrelevant for the own scientific work. In the following it is questioned, whether this is an indispensable assumption of productive and progressive science. Some propositions will be discussed, what a positive historical perspective could mean for the current limnological research. It is claimed that it could be not only interesting but even exciting for limnologists to deal with their own history. One important argument is that limnology not only has a history but also is history: the ‘discovery’ of new methods, theories, concepts and instruments depends on the forgoing. Consequently, scientific progress is related to the history and progress of a particular discipline. This means in same time that the historical reflection could be an important issue to a more complete ‘explanation’ and understanding of this progress.Another reason to overcome the traditional separation into actual and historical knowledge and acting could be the hybrid character of ecology. In ecology, and consequently also in limnology, several elements of opposite scientific methodologies are merged together. Therefore the discussions on the saprobial system, an ecosystem ‘lake’ and the ‘microbial loop’ differ fundamentally. Turned positively it means that limnology should be skilled in handling with different systems of knowledge. This skills should be accessible by approaching the own history in a selfconcious way. Of course the internal view alone is not sufficient to write a history of the discipline, which aims to demonstrate the movement of progress, the relation between science and society as well as science and technics. Its history must be studied from the perspective and with the methods of the history and philosophy of science. In doing so there should be a common objective for historians and scientists that is the amelioration of the science ‘limnology’.     

Quartz microstructures developed during non-steady state plastic flow at rapidly decaying stress and strain rate

Synseismic loading to very high stresses (>0.5 GPa) and subsequent creep during stress relaxation in the uppermost plastosphere at temperatures of ca. 300–350 °C, near the lower tip of an inferred once seismically active crustal scale fault, was proposed based on peculiar microstructures identified in rocks exposed over >100 km² in the Sesia Zone, European Western Alps. Here we discuss the conspicuous and highly heterogeneous microstructural record of quartz in disseminated small-scale shear zones. Sub-basal deformation lamellae and arrays of elongate subgrains on the TEM-scale indicate an early stage of glide-controlled deformation at high stresses. Distributed brittle failure is indicated by healed microcracks. Very fine-grained recrystallised aggregates with a pronounced crystallographic preferred orientation reflect intense plastic flow by dislocation creep. Locally, a fine-grained foam microstructure indicates a final stage of static grain growth at low differential stress. For the previously inferred peak stresses of about 0.5 GPa and given temperatures, initial strain rates on the order of 10⁻¹⁰ s⁻¹ are predicted by available flow laws for dislocation creep of quartz. We emphasise the importance of short-term non-steady state deformation in the uppermost plastosphere underlying seismically active upper crust. The related heterogeneous record of quartz is governed by the local stress history at constant temperature.     

中国海相油气田勘探实例之二鄂尔多斯盆地靖边气田的发现与勘探

靖边气田发现于1989年,它是我国首次在陆上海相碳酸盐岩地层中发现与探明的非常规隐蔽性大型岩溶古地貌气藏。2000年探明天然气储量2909.88×108m3。而后通过气田的开发及扩边勘探,又使气田面积向东延伸扩大,落实三级储量1011.4×108m3。气田主力产层由奥陶系马家沟组五1层溶斑白云岩与粗粉晶白云岩组成,具有沉积稳定、成层分布、低孔隙低渗透、低丰度、大面积、中低产、埋藏深、非常规、隐蔽性强的特点。论述了气田的发现和勘探开发历程、气藏的地质特征,以及在稳定地台区寻找海相碳酸盐岩气田的启示。     

Reindeer management during the colonization of Sami lands: A long-term perspective of vulnerability and adaptation strategies

Reindeer husbandry's strong connection to the land, together with the ongoing climate-change debate, has generated growing interest in its socio-ecological resilience and vulnerability. The ability of indigenous societies and their activities to respond to change is widely recognized to be dependent on several factors, such as socioeconomic forces and aspects of governance, all of which have long historical backgrounds. However, although historians constantly address questions about human societies, there have been very few historical studies on their resilience, vulnerability and adaptation strategies. Here, using historical sources, we analyze the vulnerability of reindeer husbandry (and the Sami societies that depended on it) in Sweden during the 19th century. We demonstrate that although reindeer management was a much more diverse enterprise at that time than it is now, the major adaptation strategy and constraining forces were similar to those of today. The foremost adaptation strategy was, and still is, the flexible use of pasture area, and the clearest constraints during the 19th century were the loss of authority over the land and the imposed regulation of reindeer management-both of which were strongly connected to the process of colonization.

Terminology

Throughout this paper we use the terms reindeer management and reindeer pastoralism interchangeably. Sami reindeer pastoralism has been described as a complex system with two different aspects of management: herding and husbandry. Husbandry has been defined as the accumulations of profit whereas herding has been defined as the control of the animals in the terrain (Paine, 1970, p. 53). In a Swedish context husbandry questions concerning slaughter and castration of reindeer were discussed within the household and herding matters were resolved jointly within the traditional working community Siida. The Siida consisted of households working together on traditional pasturelands and these constellations were grouped together into administrative reindeer pasture districts (Sami villages) ( [Ingold, 1978], [Fellman, 1910] and [Beach, 1981]).     

From cosmic ray physics to cosmic ray astronomy: Bruno Rossi and the opening of new windows on the universe

Bruno Rossi is considered one of the fathers of modern physics, being also a pioneer in virtually every aspect of what is today called high-energy astrophysics. At the beginning of 1930s he was the pioneer of cosmic ray research in Italy, and, as one of the leading actors in the study of the nature and behavior of the cosmic radiation, he witnessed the birth of particle physics and was one of the main investigators in this fields for many years. While cosmic ray physics moved more and more towards astrophysics, Rossi continued to be one of the inspirers of this line of research. When outer space became a reality, he did not hesitate to leap into this new scientific dimension. Rossi’s intuition on the importance of exploiting new technological windows to look at the universe with new eyes, is a fundamental key to understand the profound unity which guided his scientific research path up to its culminating moments at the beginning of 1960s, when his group at MIT performed the first in situ measurements of the density, speed and direction of the solar wind at the boundary of Earth’s magnetosphere, and when he promoted the search for extra-solar sources of X rays. A visionary idea which eventually led to the breakthrough experiment which discovered Scorpius X-1 in 1962, and inaugurated X-ray astronomy.