Gold paragenesis and chemistry at Batu Hijau, Indoneisa: implications for gold-rich porphyry copper deposits

Gold is an important by-product in many porphyry-type deposits but the distribution and chemistry of gold in such systems remains poorly understood. Here we report the results of petrographic, electron microprobe, laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS), and flotation test studies of gold and associated copper sulfides within a paragenetic framework from the world-class Batu Hijau (914 mt @ 0.53% Cu, 0.40 g/t Au) porphyry copper–gold deposit, Indonesia. Unlike many other porphyry copper–gold deposits, early copper minerals (bornite–digenite–chalcocite) are well preserved at Batu Hijau and the chalcopyrite–pyrite overprint is less developed. Hence, it provides an excellent opportunity to study the entire gold paragenesis of the porphyry system. In 105 polished thin sections, 699 native gold grains were identified. Almost all of the native gold grains occurred either within quartz veins, attached to sulfide, or as free gold along quartz or silicate grain boundaries. The native gold grains are dominantly round in shape and mostly 1–12 m in size. The majority of gold was deposited during the formation of early A veins and is dominantly associated with bornite rather than chalcopyrite. The petrographic and LA-ICP-MS study results indicate that in bornite-rich ores gold mostly occurs within copper sulfide grains as invisible gold (i.e., within the sulfide structure) or as native gold grains. In chalcopyrite-rich ores gold mostly occurs as native gold grains with lesser invisible gold. Petrographic observations also indicate a higher proportion of free gold (native gold not attached to any sulfide) in chalcopyrite-rich ores compared to bornite rich ores. The pattern of free gold distribution appears to correlate with the flotation test data, where the average gold recovery value from chalcopyrite-rich ores is consistently lower than bornite-rich ores. Our data suggest that porphyry copper-gold deposits with chalcopyrite-rich ores are more likely to have a higher proportion of free gold and may require different ore processing strategies.Editorial handling: R. P. Richards     

安庆铜矿水化学特征及标志意义

安庆铜矿属岩溶金属矿山,水文地质条件复杂,坑下涌水量大.本文收集了安庆铜矿40个水化学分析样,根据地下水化学成分阿廖金分类法进行类型划分并分析其标志意义.     

Photosynthetic responses to Cu exposure are independent of light acclimation and uncoupled from growth inhibition in Fucus serratus (Phaeophyceae)

We have studied the effect of light acclimation on photosynthetic responses and growth during Cu²⁺ exposure (0–0.84 μM) in the brown seaweed Fucus serratus. Measurements of chlorophyll fluorescence parameters showed that Cu²⁺ exposure amplified ETR, reduced the chlorophyll content at the cellular level and that there was no effect of light adaptation on the Cu²⁺ resistance of the algae. In contrast to the inhibitory effects of Cu²⁺ on chlorophyll fluorescence, O₂ evolution and the total content of chlorophyll and carotenoid of the algae was unaffected by Cu²⁺. We conclude that photoinhibition and perhaps pigment degradation in the meristoderm was compensated for by cells deeper in the thallus with the result that the overall photosynthetic fitness of the algae was maintained. The pronounced inhibitory effects of Cu²⁺ on algae growth was not a consequence of photoinhibition and could be attributed to direct inhibitory effects on the growth process.     

Isotopic constraints on fluid evolution and precipitation mechanisms for the Boléo Cu–Co–Zn district, Mexico

Stable and radiogenic isotope composition of stratiform Cu–Co–Zn mineralization and associated sedimentary rocks within the Boléo district of the Miocene Santa Rosalía basin, Baja California Sur, constrains the evolution of seawater and hydrothermal fluids and the mechanisms responsible for sulfide and oxide deposition. Stable isotope geochemistry of limestone and evaporite units indicates a strong paleogeographic influence on the chemistry of the water column. Near-shore limestone at the base of the Boléo Formation is characterized by modified marine carbon (δ ¹³C_PDB=−6.0 to +4.4‰) and oxygen (δ ¹⁸O_SMOW=+19.5 to +26.2‰) isotope composition due to the influx of ¹³C- and ¹⁸O-depleted fluvial water. Sulfate sulfur isotope composition (δ ³⁴S_CDT=+17.21 to +22.3‰ and δ ¹⁸O_SMOW=+10.7 to +13.1‰) for basal evaporite and claystone facies are similar to Miocene seawater. Strontium isotopes are less radiogenic than expected for Miocene seawater due to interaction with volcanic rocks. Low S/C ratios, high Mn contents and sedimentological evidence indicate the basin water column was oxidizing. The oxygenated basin restricted sulfide precipitation to within the sedimentary pile by replacement of early diagenetic framboidal pyrite and pore-space filling by Cu–Co–Zn sulfides to produce disseminated sulfides. Quartz–Mn oxide oxygen isotope geothermometry constrains mineralization temperature between 18 and 118°C. Sulfur isotopes indicate the following sources of sulfide: (1) bacterial sulfate reduction within the sedimentary pile produced negative δ ³⁴S values (<−20‰) in framboidal pyrite; and (2) bacterial sulfate reduction at high temperature (80–118°C) within the sedimentary pile during the infiltration of the metal-bearing brines produced Cu–Co–Zn sulfides with negative, but close to 0‰, δ ³⁴S values. Isotope modeling of fluid-rock reaction and fluid mixing indicates: (1) sedimentary and marine carbonates (δ ¹³C=−11.6 to −3.2‰ and δ ¹⁸O=+19.0 to +21.8‰) precipitated from basin seawater/pore water that variably mixed with isotopically depleted meteoric waters; and (2) hydrothermal calcite (δ ¹³C=−7.9 to +4.3‰ and δ ¹⁸O=+22.1 to +25.8‰) formed by dissolution and replacement of authigenic marine calcite by downward-infiltrating metalliferous brine and brine-sediment exchange, that prior to reaction with calcite, had mixed with isotopically depleted pore water. The downward infiltration of metalliferous brine is inferred from lateral and stratigraphic metal distributions and from the concentration of Cu sulfides along the upper contact of pyrite-bearing laminae. The co-existence and textural relationships among framboidal pyrite, base metal sulfides, carbonate and Mn–Fe oxides (including magnetite) within mineralized units are consistent with carbonate replacement and high-temperature bacterial reduction within the sedimentary pile occurring simultaneously below a seawater column under predominantly oxygenated conditions.     

环太平洋成矿带斑岩-矽卡岩型铜矿和与花岗岩有关的锡多金属矿研究现状与展望

长期以来,斑岩型铜矿是研究和勘查的热点。在20世纪70~90年代,对与花岗岩有关锡矿进行了大量深入研究,近几年,锡被列为一种关键金属,锡矿的研究和勘查又成为新的热点之一。锡矿和铜矿是环太平洋地区乃至全球最重要的两种矿床,但两者的成矿物质和成矿过程相差迥异。环太平洋地区的锡矿和铜矿主要形成于晚中生代至新生代,通常认为与太平洋板块俯冲有关,包括古太平洋板块、伊泽奈岐板块、法拉龙板块以及现今太平洋板块。本文主要综述了环太平洋成矿域的斑岩-矽卡岩铜矿和与花岗岩有关锡矿的时空分布特点、成矿岩体、矿床成因以及成矿环境的研究现状。尽管,目前已经取得了诸多重要进展,但仍然存在一些重要的科学问题亟待解决,例如,1)中国东部平行同时代成对出现的三条锡(钨)成矿带与斑岩铜矿成矿带的形成机制? 2)沿欧亚大陆边缘发育长达一万多公里的巨型铜金锡成矿带,而且绝大多数矿产发育于一系列伸展盆地中,其成矿背景是什么?此外,我们认为开展玻利维亚和大兴安岭南段Sn-Ag成矿系统的对比研究,是推动大兴安岭南段及邻区锡矿找矿取得突破的重要途径。     

新疆和静县巴音铜矿区地质特征矿床成因及成矿模式

巴音铜矿区位于中天山中段的南缘,伊犁地块东南缘,南临南天山缝合带,处在阿吾拉勒山与那拉提山交会处,属那拉提铜、镍、金成矿带,其地质、构造特征比较复杂,成矿地质条件较为有利。通过分析区域成矿背景及矿区地质特征,总结矿床成因及控矿因素,证实该区矿化分为火山-火山热液型、脉岩型和热液脉型3种类型,就成矿机理而言,这3种矿化的形成有着密切的内在联系,在本质上都与该区晚志留世火山活动密切相关。结合区内各种矿化所占的比重和形成时间的先后顺序,其成因类型可概括为:巴音铜矿为以晚志留世海相火山-火山热液型矿化为主,伴有晚期脉岩矿化,局部受海西早期花岗质岩浆热液叠加、改造的中—低温铜矿床。不同类型矿化的主要控矿因素不同,火山岩型矿化的控矿因素主要为火山活动形式、活动阶段及岩性,同时断裂构造也有一定的控制作用;脉岩型矿化系受岩性和脉体本身(出露部位和规模)控制,较好矿化一般出现于脉岩规模较大者中,或脉岩的局部膨大部位;热液脉型矿化主要受角闪花岗岩体及其接触带控制,局部还受到后期断裂破碎带控制,矿体沿断裂破碎带充填而成。     

The use of water-extractable Cu,Mo, Zn,As, Pb concentrations and automated mineral analysis of flue dust particles as tools for impact studies in topsoils exposed to past emissions of a Cu-smelter

An exploratory study has been conducted to test the utility of automated mineral analysis observations to identify flue dust particles in topsoils exposed for several decades to emissions of a copper smelter. The methods used are readily available in mining countries. To identify the most impacted sites, the Cu, Zn, Pb, Mo and As levels in water and diluted sulphuric acid extractions of four topsoil size fractions (833–495 μm, 246–148 μm; 74–38 μm; <38 μm) were analysed. X-ray diffraction analyses were used to demonstrate the mineralogical degradation of smectite phases when approaching the smelter. Flue dust particles in different states of conservation in topsoils were directly observed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) aided by energy dispersive detection of X-rays. Qemscan^® scanning of dispersed topsoil preparations (10,000 particles) pinpoints smelter particles by their density; flue dust pearls can be tracked by sorting particles according to their sphericity, clearly identifying them as pyrometallurgical products. When sorting soil particles by mineral groups (e.g. sulphides), an increase in this phase group can be observed when approaching the smelter. SEM resolution limits observations to particles larger than 2–3 μm. Smaller particles can be observed by transmission electron microscopy, although observer experience and the availability of equipment time are essential as is the case for SEM.     

山东邹平吉祥金铜矿矿床地质特征及找矿前景分析

在对区域成矿地质背景认识的基础上,详细解剖了吉祥金铜矿的矿区地质和矿床地质特征,讨论了矿床成因与找矿标志,并初步展望了该区的找矿前景。初步认为该矿床属于沿断裂构造充填的岩浆热液矿床。控矿因素主要是断裂构造和岩浆岩,主要找矿标志为发育于二长岩体内的硅化、黄铜矿化构造破碎带。通过对地质、物探等资料的分析认为该区具有良好的找矿前景。     

A comparison of acute and chronic toxicity tests used to examine the temporal stability of a gradient in copper tolerance of Hediste diversicolor from the Fal estuary, Cornwall, UK

The aim of this study was to use two different toxicity tests to verify the existence of a gradient in tolerance along Rostronguet Creek. Hediste diversicolor was collected from five populations in the Fal estuary previously shown to vary in copper tolerance. Exposure to 4 mgL(-1) of copper in an acute assay demonstrated that Mylor Creek worms were sensitive (LT(50) 86 h) and the tolerance of Rostronguet Creek worms increased moving upstream from the mouth of the creek (LT(50)s 100-258 h). There was no significant difference in tolerance between Mylor worms and worms from the mouth of Rostronguet Creek. This is in agreement with a previous study [Grant, A., Hateley, J.G., Jones, N.V., 1989. Mapping the ecological impact of heavy metals on the estuarine polychaete Nereis diversicolor using inherited metal tolerance. Marine Pollution Bulletin 20, 235-238] and demonstrates temporal stability of the gradient. Copper tolerance was also measured using a chronic toxicity test run for 90 d using step-wise increases in challenge concentration. A significant difference in tolerance was shown between populations from Mylor Creek and those at the mouth of Rostronguet Creek, which has not been reported previously. Experimental protocol was therefore an important factor in detecting population variation in tolerance.     

东天山自然铜矿化带玄武岩的起源、演化及成岩构造背景

新疆东天山地区与玄武岩有关的自然铜矿化带位于东天山觉罗塔格构造带内,自西向东有十里坡、黑龙峰、长城山、东尖峰等主要矿(化)点,自然铜矿化主要发育在玄武岩、杏仁状玄武岩及凝灰岩夹层中。本文基于玄武岩的地球化学特征,研究东天山自然铜矿化带玄武岩是否与地幔柱有关、岩浆源区性质、岩浆演化、成岩构造背景等问题。研究显示,东天山自然铜矿化带玄武岩与地幔柱岩浆活动无直接关系,整个天山地区是否存在石炭-二叠纪地幔柱岩浆活动也需要进一步的研究; 玄武岩起源于亏损岩石圈地幔,是演化岩浆的产物; 演化的玄武质岩浆形成后,在岩浆房中或上升至地表的过程中没有发生明显的分离结晶作用,也没有受到明显的地壳物质混染; 与玄武岩对应的地幔橄榄岩平衡原生岩浆演化的高镁岩浆的产物,可能为东天山地区与铜镍硫化物成矿有关的基性-超基性岩,指示这些铜镍硫化物矿床可能与地幔柱岩浆活动也没有关系; 玄武岩形成于新疆北部后碰撞构造阶段的伸展期,是在拉张应力体制下,由于软流圈上涌导致岩石圈地幔部分熔融而形成。