The methane hydrate formation and the resource estimate resulting from free gas migration in seeping seafloor hydrate stability zone

It is a typical multiphase flow process for hydrate formation in seeping seafloor sediments. Free gas can not only be present but also take part in formation of hydrate. The volume fraction of free gas in local pore of hydrate stable zone (HSZ) influences the formation of hydrate in seeping seafloor area, and methane flux determines the abundance and resource of hydrate-bearing reservoirs. In this paper, a multiphase flow model including water (dissolved methane and salt)-free gas hydrate has been established to describe this kind of flow-transfer-reaction process where there exists a large scale of free gas migration and transform in seafloor pore. In the order of three different scenarios, the conversions among permeability, capillary pressure, phase saturations and salinity along with the formation of hydrate have been deducted. Furthermore, the influence of four sorts of free gas saturations and three classes of methane fluxes on hydrate formation and the resource has also been analyzed and compared. Based on the rules drawn from the simulation, and combined information gotten from drills in field, the methane hydrate(MH) formation in Shenhu area of South China Sea has been forecasted. It has been speculated that there may breed a moderate methane flux below this seafloor HSZ. If the flux is about 0.5 kg m⁻² a⁻¹, then it will go on to evolve about 2700 ka until the hydrate saturation in pore will arrive its peak (about 75%). Approximately 1.47 × 10⁹ m³ MH has been reckoned in this marine basin finally, is about 13 times over preliminary estimate.     

A scheme for pixel-scale aerodynamic surface temperature over hilly land

Hilly-land satellite pixel-scale aerodynamic surface temperatures (AdST) are investigated using LAS (Large Aperture Scintillometer) and meteorological observations during 21-22 May 2001, indicating that the calculated temperatures are predominantly subject to estimated roughness lengths and, to a less extent, to estimated Bowen ratios, with errors to within 3.0 K between the AdST calculations and hilly radiometric surface temperatures retrieved from satellite data with the split window model. The errors depend heavily on the model used and the zenith angles and azimuth of the satellite and sun with respect to the observational site.     

Modelling Air-Sea Fluxes during a Western Pacific Typhoon： Role of Sea Spray

It has long been recognized that the evolution ot marine storms may De strongly alIected Dy the nuxtransfer processes over the ocean. High winds in a storm can generate large amounts of spray, which canmodify the transfer of momentum, heat, and moisture across the air-sea interface. However, the role of seaspray and air-sea processes in western Pacific typhoons has remained elusive. In this study, the impact ofsea spray on air-sea fluxes and the evolution of a typhoon over the western Pacific is investigated using acoupled atmosphere-sea-spray modeling system. Through the case study of the recent Typhoon Fengshenfrom 2002, we found that: (1) Sea spray can cause a significant latent heat flux increase of up to 40% ofthe interfacial fluxes in the typhoon; (2) Taking into account the effects of sea spray, the intensity of themodeled typhoon can be increased by 30% in the 10-m wind speed, which may greatly improve estimatesof storm maximum intensity and, to some extent, improve the simulations of overall storm structure in theatmospheric model; (3) The effects of sea spray are mainly focused over the high wind regions around thestorm center and are mainly felt in the lower part of the troposphere.     

磁尾通量绳结构中由压强损失导致的核心场增强

与亚暴活动密切相关的磁尾等离子体团可以具有不同的拓扑位形,多数磁尾等离子体团具有 强核心场,是一种通量绳型磁结构. MHD模拟表明：地球磁尾不同拓扑位形磁结构的形成, 与越尾分量By的分布形态有关. 但是模拟研究所展示的通量绳结构,核心场强度远低 于尾瓣区磁场强度. 本文考虑磁尾通量绳结构中,螺旋形磁力线向侧翼伸展产生的压强损失 ,在MHD方程中引入修正项ρt|loss,Tt|loss 及Byt|inc. 对于 初始By分量为均匀分布,受晨昏电场产生的边界入流作用,磁尾通量绳结构重复形成 与逐一排放的两个算例,计入修正项后,多重磁结构峰值压强的平均值降低,核心场的平均 值明显增大. 两个算例中,背景By值较低的算例1（By0=1nT）中,核心 场的相对增幅较大.     

Sulfur hexafluoride as a complementary method for measuring the extent of point-source thermal effluents

The transport and dilution dynamics of power-plant thermal effluent were measured for 10 consecutive days, between 25 June and 4 July 2006, by concurrently mapping the daily distributions of seawater temperature and concentrations of deliberately released sulfur hexafluoride (SF(6)) within the tidal Kwangyang Bay on the southern coast of Korea. Estimates of the daily extent of the thermal plume based on temperature and SF(6) data showed distinct differences. These differences were particularly pronounced on sunny days during which solar radiation significantly heated river or bay waters moving across the tidal flats; in these cases, the estimates based on seawater temperature data were consistently greater than those based on SF(6) data, indicating considerable overestimates of the extent of the thermal plume when temperature data were used. The present results indicate that the concurrent use of seawater temperature and SF(6) data is a powerful method in determining the extent of thermal plumes, particularly for shallow areas in which the effects of solar heating lead to large uncertainties in temperature-based estimates.     

Long term AVHRR observations of surface radiative flux from El Chichón crater lake (1996–2006)

It has been shown that due to the small surface of crater lakes, temperature surveillance is a problem using meteorological satellites. This is particularly true for El Chichón surface lake because it's about one tenth of an AVHRR pixel at nadir. In order to guarantee at least one unmixed pixel in AVHRR data, it is necessary to use only AVHRR data from NOAA satellite passes as close as possible to the nadir for the period 1996–2006, therefore AVHRR data of El Chichón's crater lake were only used it they were cloudless and had scan angles close to nadir. The analysis of the time series data shows that lake surface temperature had annual maximum values (> 35 °C) during 1996 and 1997 then surface temperature decay with a negative exponential trend reaching a steady state of about 30 °C in the last years (2004–2006). A seasonal temperature variation between the dry (December to May) and the wet (June to November) seasons is also observed. Differences between nocturnal and midday temperatures indicate the influence of lake energy emission (including reflectance) at midday under a strong short-wave solar radiation. Water surface radiative flux under these conditions reaches an average of 77.8 W m^− 2 and a maximum of 187.1 W m^− 2. Whereas nocturnal heat output from El Chichón crater lake has an average surface radiative flux of 20.4 W m^− 2 and a maximum of 74.3 W m^− 2.     

Fumarole compositions and mercury emissions from the Tatun Volcanic Field,Taiwan: Results from multi-component gas analyser,portable mercury spectrometer and direct sampling techniques

Gas emissions from Tatun volcanic group, northern Taiwan, were studied for the first time using a multi-component gas analyser system (Multi-GAS) in combination with Giggenbach flask methods at fumaroles and mud pools at Da-you-keng (DYK) and Geng-tze-ping (GZP). CO₂/S molar ratios observed at DYK ranged from 3–17, similar ratios were observed using a Multi-GAS sensor box of 8–16. SO₂ at GZP was low, higher concentrations were observed at DYK where SO₂/H₂S ratios were close to 1 for both methods. A lower CO₂/H₂S ratio was measured via Giggenbach flask sampling (7.2) than was found in the plume using the gas sensor at GZP (9.2). This may reflect rapid oxidation of H₂S as it mixes with background air. Gaseous elemental mercury (GEM) levels were observed in the fumarole gases using a portable mercury spectrometer. These are the first such measurements of mercury at Tatun. Mean GEM concentrations in the fumarole plumes were ∼ 20 ng m^− 3, with much higher concentrations observed close to the ground (mean [GEM] 130 and 290 ng m^− 3 at DYK and GZP, respectively). The GEM in the fumarole plume was elevated above concentrations in industrial/urban air in northern Taiwan and the increase in GEM observed when the instrument was lowered suggests high levels of mercury are present in the surrounding ground surface. The GEM/CO₂ (10^− 8) and GEM/S (10^− 6) ratios observed in the fumarole gases were comparable to those observed at other low-temperature fumaroles. Combining the Hg/CO₂ ratio with a previous CO₂ flux value for the area, the annual GEM flux from the Tatun field is estimated as 5–50 kg/year.     

Preliminary Study on the Dynamic Variations of the Surface Thermal Flux before and after the M_S5.7 Earthquake of 2005 in Jiujiang City,Jiangxi Province

The temporal and spatial variations of surface latent heat flux （SLHF） and diagnostic air temperature at 2m before and after the Ms5.7 earthquake occurring on November 26, 2005 in the area between Ruichang City and Jiujiang City, Jiangxi Province are summarized in this paper. It is found that before the earthquake significant SLHF anomalies and air temperature anomalies occurred in the epicentral area and its vicinity. The air temperature anomalies appeared from the 2nd to the 13th of November, 2005 and were concentrated at the epicentral area and in its southern part. Then two days later, that is, from the 4th to the 15th of November 2005, significant SLHF anomalies occurred in the epicentral area and to its northern area where many lakes are distributed along the active faults. During the anomalous period, the SLHF and air temperature at 2m exceeded the sum of average daily value over 26 years and 1.5 times of its mean square deviation. Both anomalies had maintained for 12 days with a peculiar distribution related to the tectonic active zone. It is considered that both of air temperature anomalies and SLHF anomalies are correlated to the movement of thermal flux from underground prior to earthquake. SLHF anomalies occurred over wide regions covered with abundant water, whereas air temperature anomalies occurred over land.     

Nutrient availability in support of Karenia brevis blooms on the central West Florida Shelf: What keeps Karenia blooming?

Identifying nutrient sources, primarily nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P), sufficient to support high biomass blooms of the red tide dinoflagellate, Karenia brevis, has remained problematic. The West Florida Shelf is oligotrophic, yet populations >10⁶ cells L⁻¹ frequently occur and blooms can persist for months. Here we examine the magnitude and variety of sources for N and P that are available to support blooms. Annual average in situ or background concentrations of inorganic N in the region where blooms occur range 0.02–0.2 μM while inorganic P ranges 0.025–0.24 μM. Such concentrations would be sufficient to support the growth of populations up to ∼3×10⁴ cells L⁻¹ with at least a 1 d turnover rate. Organic N concentrations average 1–2 orders of magnitude greater than inorganic N, 8–14 μM while organic P concentrations average 0.2–0.5 μM. Concentrations of organic N are sufficient to support blooms >10⁵ cells L⁻¹ but the extent to which this complex mixture of N species is utilizable is unknown. Other sources of nutrients included in our analysis are aerial deposition, estuarine flux, benthic flux, zooplankton excretion, N₂-fixation, and subsequent release of organic and inorganic N by Trichodesmium spp., and release of N and P from dead and decaying fish killed by the blooms. Inputs based on atmospheric deposition, benthic flux, and N₂-fixation, were minor contributors to the flux required to support growth of populations >2.6×10⁴ cells L⁻¹. N and P from decaying fish could theoretically maintain populations at moderate concentrations but insufficient data on the flux and subsequent mixing rates does not allow us to calculate average values. Zooplankton excretion rates, based on measured zooplankton population estimates and excretion rates could also supply all of the N and P required to support populations of 10⁵ and 10⁶ cells L⁻¹, respectively, but excretion is considered as “regenerated” nutrient input and can only maintain biomass rather than contribute to “new” biomass. The combined estuarine flux from Tampa Bay, Charlotte Harbor, and the Caloosahatchee River can supply a varying, but at times significant level of N and P to meet growth and photosynthesis requirements for populations of approximately 10⁵ cells L⁻¹ or below. Estimates of remineralization of dead fish could supply a significant proportion of bloom maintenance requirements but the rate of supply must still be determined. Overall, a combination of sources is required to maintain populations >10⁶ cells L⁻¹.     

fCO2 variability in the Bay of Biscay during ECO cruises

The Bay of Biscay is part of the North Atlantic Ocean, the most important sink of CO₂, and a subduction zone of mode waters that favours the entry of carbon to the ocean interior. To investigate the seasonal and interannual variability of CO₂ uptake, continuous underway measurements of the partial pressure of CO₂ at sea surface were performed along a commercial route between Vigo (Spain) and St. Nazaire (France). An unattended measuring system of CO₂ fugacity (fCO₂), with meteorological station, and temperature, salinity, oxygen and fluorescence sensors, was installed on board of ships of opportunity (RO-RO L’Audace and RO-RO Surprise).