Adaptation financing for projects focused on food systems through the UNFCCC

Investments in adaptation are required to reduce vulnerability and strengthen the resilience of food systems to the impacts of climate change. For low-income nations, international financing plays a central role in supporting adaptation. In this article, we document and examine adaptation projects targeting food systems financed through funding bodies of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). We find that between 2004 and 2015, 3% (n?=?96) of adaptation projects supported through the UNFCCC explicitly focused on the production, processing, distribution, preparation and/or consumption of food, with US$546 m mobilized through funding bodies directly and US$1.44bn through co-financing. Agriculture is the most common sector supported, with extreme weather events the primary climate change-related impact motivating nations to apply for adaptation financing. The majority of actions are documented to adapt the food production component of food systems, with limited focus within projects on the full range of food system vulnerability and the implications on food security.

Key policy insights

• Enhanced international adaptation financing targeting food systems is needed, and in particular financing to address limited adaptation readiness

• Supported food system projects should include holistic assessments of the entire food system in order to prioritize sector and food system component issue areas for short- and long-term efficiency

• To better analyse food system linkages and aid in the prioritization of adaptation activities, adaptation-directed funds should consider placing a higher emphasis on a cross-sectoral approach within projects

• Linkages between official development assistance and adaptation-directed funds could help optimize financing for food systems and mainstream food system adaptation efforts

     

Exploring earth system governance: A case study of floodplain management along the Tisza river in Hungary

This paper discusses a recently proposed conceptualisation of ‘earth system governance’ by applying it to floodplain management in the Hungarian Tisza river basin. By doing so it aims to improve our understanding of governance systems facilitating adaptation to a changing world. The conceptualisation of earth system governance consists of three elements: problem structure, principles and research challenges. These three elements are assessed using results from actor interviews and policy review. A regional example of natural resources management is found to be a valid case for earth system governance research. The proposed conceptualisation of earth system governance explains well the main problems, barriers and opportunities for adapting floodplain management to climate change in the Tisza region. Problem structure analysis highlights how previous socio-economic and political orders continue to shape expectations and patterns of conduct. Current barriers can be attributed to a lack of the key governance principles credibility, stability, inclusiveness and adaptiveness. Interviewees perceived the lack of credibility and effective cooperation between organisations as the largest barrier. The research challenges proposed for earth system governance agree well with opportunities identified for adapting Tisza floodplain management, calling for inclusion of actors beyond governments and state agencies, and equitable resource allocation in particular. The analysis suggests that an additional challenge for earth system governance is the prioritisation of actions to support an existing governance system and its actors in adapting.     

‘Strange changes’: Indigenous perspectives of climate change and adaptation in NE Arnhem Land (Australia)

Despite growing global attention to the development of strategies and policy for climate change adaptation, there has been little allowance for input from Indigenous people. In this study we aimed to improve understanding of factors important in integration of Yolngu perspectives in planning adaptation policy in North East Arnhem Land (Australia). We conducted workshops and in-depth interviews in two ‘communities’ to develop insight into Yolngu peoples’ observations and perspectives on climate change, and their ideas and preferences for adaptation. All participants reported observing changes in their ecological landscape, which they attributed to mining, tourism ‘development’, and climate change. ‘Strange changes’ noticed particularly in the last five years, had caused concern and anxiety among many participants. Despite their concern about ecological changes, participants were primarily worried about other issues affecting their community's general welfare. The results suggest that strategies and policies are needed to strengthen adaptive capacity of communities to mitigate over-arching poverty and well-being issues, as well as respond to changes in climate. Participants believed that major constraints to strengthening adaptive capacity had external origins, at regional, state and federal levels. Examples are poor communication and engagement, top-down institutional processes that allow little Indigenous voice, and lack of recognition of Indigenous culture and practices. Participants’ preferences for strategies to strengthen community adaptive capacity tended to be those that lead towards greater self-sufficiency, independence, empowerment, resilience and close contact with the natural environment. Based on the results, we developed a simple model to highlight main determinants of community vulnerability. A second model highlights components important in facilitating discourse on enhancing community capacity to adapt to climatic and other stressors.     

Taking the uncertainty in climate-change vulnerability assessment seriously

Climate-change vulnerability assessment has become a frequently employed tool, with the purpose of informing policy-makers attempting to adapt to global change conditions. However, we suggest that there are three reasons to suspect that vulnerability assessment often promises more certainty, and more useful results, than it can deliver. First, the complexity of the system it purports to describe is greater than that described by other types of assessment. Second, it is difficult, if not impossible, to obtain data to test proposed interactions between different vulnerability drivers. Third, the time scale of analysis is too long to be able to make robust projections about future adaptive capacity. We analyze the results from a stakeholder workshop in a European vulnerability assessment, and find evidence to support these arguments. To cite this article: A. Patt et al., C. R. Geoscience 337 (2005).     

全球变化的区域响应和适应

20世纪 90年代以来 ,全球变化研究进入了一个新的时期 ,其研究方向发生了重大调整 :从认识地球系统基本规律的纯基础研究为主 ,扩展到与人类社会可持续发展密切相关的一系列生存环境实际问题的研究 ;从研究人类活动对环境变化的影响 ,扩展到研究人类如何适应全球环境的变化 ;在更高层次上进行地球系统的综合集成研究。文中对日益受到重视的全球变化区域响应和适应研究的背景进行了分析 ,并着重介绍了一些概念和研究进展 :( 1)对全球和区域环境变化的适应同可持续发展之间的关系。两者应存在协调统一的关系。同时 ,适应应是对区域和全球环境系统的整体性和系统性适应 ,不应是局部的和片面的。( 2 )“有序人类活动”的研究框架。介绍了对“有序人类活动”的一些基本认识 ,以及在虚拟试验研究、示范区建设和长期监测研究等方面的进展。( 3 )集成研究。以东亚区域环境系统和北方干旱化的集成研究为例 ,介绍了集成研究的方法和过程     

青藏高原环境变化对全球变化的响应及其适应对策

青藏高原的环境变化对全球变化具有敏感响应和强烈影响。青藏高原的现代环境与地表过程相互作用,引起包括冰冻圈和水资源以及生态系统等方面的一系列变化,对高原本身以及周边地区的人类生存环境和经济社会发展产生重大影响。作为国际研究的热点地区,青藏高原环境变化研究目前出现三个新的科学动向：关注关键地区的关键科学问题的系统研究;关注以现代地表过程为核心的监测研究;关注全球变化影响下的圈层相互作用研究。本项目的研究对青藏高原环境变化科学的发展、国际科学前沿的贡献以及服务于社会经济发展,都具有十分重要的意义。通过项目的研究将揭示青藏高原隆升到现代地貌与环境格局过程中所出现的重大构造事件和环境事件;重建不同区域、不同时间尺度的气候环境变化序列并揭示其时空分布特征;阐明青藏高原冰冻圈、湖泊和主要生态系统与土地覆被在不同气候条件下的变化特征;揭示青藏高原环境变化与地表过程对全球变化的响应特点和高原热力与动力过程对不同气候系统变化的影响。本项目将在高原南北典型区域利用地貌学与沉积学手段,研究青藏高原现代地貌与环境格局的形成过程;利用湖芯、冰芯、树木年轮等手段,研究青藏高原过去环境变化的特征事件、区域分异及其与全球变化的联系;利用冰川、冻土、积雪的时空变化,结合对高原特殊大气边界层的观测,研究青藏高原冰冻圈变化与能量水分循环过程;从冰川、湖泊、大气的监测入手,结合模式方法,研究青藏高原环境变化的机制;利用生态系统碳的源—汇变化,研究青藏高原生态系统对环境变化的响应;综合研究全球变化背景下青藏高原环境变化与水资源变化所产生的区域效应和适应对策。     

Adaptations of araphid pennate diatoms to a planktonic existence

Pennate diatoms are monophyletic. Their principal cell wall elements, called valves, are shaped like a ship's hull. Within the pennates, the araphids are paraphyletic; they possess rimoportulae and pore fields located at the valve apices. The pore fields exude mucilage pads with which cells attach to one another to form chains. Many taxa use the pads also for attachment to substrata. Only a few genera are truly planktonic. The main question addressed in this study is whether the planktonic lifestyle is ancestral or derived. Phylogenies inferred from nuclear SSU rDNA gene sequences of diatoms indicated that the attached lifestyle is ancestral among the araphids, whereas a typically planktonic lifestyle seems to have developed at least three times and possibly four times independently. Acquisition of a planktonic lifestyle from benthic ancestry was accompanied by a reduction in the silicification of cell-wall elements, but changes in morphological characters shared by all four clades were not detected. The reason why only three or four araphid pennate clades have adopted a planktonic lifestyle may be related to constraints associated to their sexual reproduction mode. Partner cells of opposite mating type align with one another and produce isogametes. These gametes lack flagella; they move to one another in an amoeboid fashion, which functions well on surfaces, but seems a liability in a turbulent water column. The planktonic lineages must have overcome this constraint, e.g. by sinking to the bottom, or aggregating, to perform sexual reproduction. Members of the four araphid pennate lineages are now common constituents of the plankton, suggesting that they are ecologically successful.     

Diversity to decline-livelihood adaptations of the Namaqua Khoikhoi (1800–1900)

An environmental history of the Leliefontein community of Namaqualand, Northern Cape provides a detailed case of the nexus between social and ecological stresses shaping livelihood change. By combining an historical proxy precipitation data set with a livelihood change study the value of historical research in integrated studies of past human-environment systems is illustrated. The identification of effective livelihood adaptation to extreme climatic conditions is examined, illustrating the tradeoffs made between adaptation and ‘coping’ strategies which were unsuccessful over the long term. During the course of the 19th century the Namaqua Khoikhoi population changed from a sustainable nomadic pastoral community to a poverty stricken rural community with a diversity of livelihood strategies. For the Namaqua increased livelihood diversity – usually an effective adaptation in times of stress – instead of promoting resilience, contributed to their material decline. Widespread transhumance between different climatic regions is shown to have been a successful adaptation to climatic extremes, but external economic exposure and restricted access to land become drivers of decline. The ‘double exposure’ framework used in contemporary studies, proved useful in accounting for this decline as it can accommodate both environmental and economic stressors.     

Studying local climate adaptation: A heuristic research framework for comparative policy analysis

Climate change poses a significant risk for communities, and local governments around the world have begun responding by developing climate adaptation policies. Scholarship on local adaptation policy has proliferated in recent years, but insufficient attention has been paid to operationalization of the unit of analysis, and methods employed are typically inadequate to draw inferences about variation across cases. This article seeks to contribute to the conceptual and methodological foundations of a research agenda for comparative analysis of local adaptation policies and policy-making. Synthesizing insights from policy studies literature and existing adaptation research, the article identifies and operationalizes two aspects of public policy—policy content and policy process—which are salient objects of comparative analysis that typically vary from one community to another. The article also addresses research design, outlining a comparative case study methodology that incorporates various qualitative analytical techniques as the vehicle to examine these policy elements in empirical settings.     

A bridge too far? The influence of socio-cultural values on the adaptation responses of smallholders to a devastating pest outbreak in cocoa

The influence of socio-cultural factors on the adaptive capacity, resilience and trade-offs in decision-making of households and communities is receiving growing scholarly attention. In many partly transformed societies, where the market economy is not well developed, livelihood practices are heavily structured by kinship and indigenous social and economic values. Farm investment decisions and incentives to produce agricultural commodities are shaped by a host of considerations in addition to market imperatives like profit. In one such partly transformed society in East New Britain Province, Papua New Guinea, we examine the adaptation decisions of smallholders in response to the drastic drop of yield in their cocoa plots caused by the sudden outbreak of Cocoa Pod Borer. To explain why the impact of the pest has been so great we examine the interconnections between household responses, the local socio-cultural and economic context of smallholder commodity crop production and the wider institutional environment in which household choices and decisions are made. We argue that the significant lifestyle changes and labour intensive farming methods required for the effective control of Cocoa Pod Borer are incompatible with existing smallholder farming systems, values and livelihoods. To adopt a high input cropping system requires more than a technical fix and some training; it also requires abandoning a ‘way of life’ that provides status, identity and a moral order, and which is therefore highly resistant to change. The paper highlights the enduring influence and significance of local, culturally-specific beliefs and socio-economic values and their influence on how individuals and communities make adaptation decisions.