Mesozoic transtensional basin history of the Eastern Cordillera, Colombian Andes: Inferences from tectonic models

Backstripping analysis and forward modeling of 162 stratigraphic columns and wells of the Eastern Cordillera (EC), Llanos, and Magdalena Valley shows the Mesozoic Colombian Basin is marked by five lithosphere stretching pulses. Three stretching events are suggested during the Triassic–Jurassic, but additional biostratigraphical data are needed to identify them precisely. The spatial distribution of lithosphere stretching values suggests that small, narrow (<150 km), asymmetric graben basins were located on opposite sides of the paleo-Magdalena–La Salina fault system, which probably was active as a master transtensional or strike-slip fault system. Paleomagnetic data suggesting a significant (at least 10°) northward translation of terranes west of the Bucaramanga fault during the Early Jurassic, and the similarity between the early Mesozoic stratigraphy and tectonic setting of the Payandé terrane with the Late Permian transtensional rift of the Eastern Cordillera of Peru and Bolivia indicate that the areas were adjacent in early Mesozoic times. New geochronological, petrological, stratigraphic, and structural research is necessary to test this hypothesis, including additional paleomagnetic investigations to determine the paleolatitudinal position of the Central Cordillera and adjacent tectonic terranes during the Triassic–Jurassic. Two stretching events are suggested for the Cretaceous: Berriasian–Hauterivian (144–127 Ma) and Aptian–Albian (121–102 Ma). During the Early Cretaceous, marine facies accumulated on an extensional basin system. Shallow-marine sedimentation ended at the end of the Cretaceous due to the accretion of oceanic terranes of the Western Cordillera. In Berriasian–Hauterivian subsidence curves, isopach maps and paleomagnetic data imply a (>180 km) wide, asymmetrical, transtensional half-rift basin existed, divided by the Santander Floresta horst or high. The location of small mafic intrusions coincides with areas of thin crust (crustal stretching factors >1.4) and maximum stretching of the subcrustal lithosphere. During the Aptian–early Albian, the basin extended toward the south in the Upper Magdalena Valley. Differences between crustal and subcrustal stretching values suggest some lowermost crustal decoupling between the crust and subcrustal lithosphere or that increased thermal thinning affected the mantle lithosphere. Late Cretaceous subsidence was mainly driven by lithospheric cooling, water loading, and horizontal compressional stresses generated by collision of oceanic terranes in western Colombia. Triassic transtensional basins were narrow and increased in width during the Triassic and Jurassic. Cretaceous transtensional basins were wider than Triassic–Jurassic basins. During the Mesozoic, the strike-slip component gradually decreased at the expense of the increase of the extensional component, as suggested by paleomagnetic data and lithosphere stretching values. During the Berriasian–Hauterivian, the eastern side of the extensional basin may have developed by reactivation of an older Paleozoic rift system associated with the Guaicáramo fault system. The western side probably developed through reactivation of an earlier normal fault system developed during Triassic–Jurassic transtension. Alternatively, the eastern and western margins of the graben may have developed along older strike-slip faults, which were the boundaries of the accretion of terranes west of the Guaicáramo fault during the Late Triassic and Jurassic. The increasing width of the graben system likely was the result of progressive tensional reactivation of preexisting upper crustal weakness zones. Lateral changes in Mesozoic sediment thickness suggest the reverse or thrust faults that now define the eastern and western borders of the EC were originally normal faults with a strike-slip component that inverted during the Cenozoic Andean orogeny. Thus, the Guaicáramo, La Salina, Bitúima, Magdalena, and Boyacá originally were transtensional faults. Their oblique orientation relative to the Mesozoic magmatic arc of the Central Cordillera may be the result of oblique slip extension during the Cretaceous or inherited from the pre-Mesozoic structural grains. However, not all Mesozoic transtensional faults were inverted.     

The transition from passive to active margin tectonics: a case study from the zone of Samedan (eastern Switzerland)

The Zone of Samedan is part of a fossil, early Mesozoic rift system originally situated in the distal, Lower Austro-Alpine domain of the Adriatic passive continental margin. An early Mesozoic configuration of asymmetrical rift basins bounded by relative structural highs compartmentalized Late Cretaceous active margin tectonics; Jurassic half-grabens were folded into arcuate synclines, whereas relative structural highs engendered thin, imbricated thrust sheets. West-directed thrusting and folding initiated at the surface and continued to depths favoring mylonitization under lower greenschist-facies conditions. At this time Liguria-Piemontese ophiolites were accreted to Lower Austro-Alpine units directly underlying the Zone of Samedan. Late Cretaceous orogenic collapse of the Adriatic active margin involved the reactivation of west-directed thrusts as low-angle, top-to-the-east, normal faults. These faults accommodated extensional uplift of Liguria-Piemontese ophiolites and Lower Austro-Alpine units beneath and within the Zone of Samedan. During Paleogene collision, some Late Cretaceous faults in the Zone of Samedan were reactivated under lower anchizonal conditions as north-directed thrusts. The latter stages of this early Tertiary thickening were transitional to brittle, high-angle normal faulting associated with top-to-the-east extension and spreading above the warm, uplifting Lepontine dome.     

Influence of the Neotethys rifting on the development of the Dampier Sub-basin (North West Shelf of Australia), highlighted by subsidence modelling

During the Late Palaeozoic and the Mesozoic, the development and evolution of the North West Shelf of Australia have been mostly driven by rifting phases associated with the break-up of Gondwana. These extensional episodes, which culminated in the opening of the Neotethys Ocean during the Permo-Carboniferous and a series of abyssal plains during the Jurassic-Cretaceous, are characterised by different stress regimes and modes of extension, and therefore had distinctive effects on the margin, and particularly on the Northern Carnarvon Basin.Interpretation of 3D and 2D seismic data enables a structural and stratigraphic analysis of the Late Palaeozoic sediments deposited in the proximal part of the Dampier Sub-basin (Mermaid Nose). Based on their seismic characters, stratigraphic relationship, internal patterns, lateral continuity, and architecture, these units are associated here with the Pennsylvanian?–Early Sakmarian glaciogenic Lyons Group and the Sakmarian–Artinskian Callytharra Formation. The former were deposited in a half-graben whose development is associated with the onset of the Neotethys rifting, and the latter is characterised by restricted deposition, inversion of prograding patterns, and uplift.The integration of seismo-stratigraphic characterisation of the Late Palaeozoic sequences and Mesozoic data from one exploration well (Roebuck-1) enables the construction of subsidence curves for the Mermaid Nose and the interpretation of its geohistory.The tectonic subsidence curves show a striking Permo-Carboniferous rifting phase related to the Neotethys rifting and a discrete Late Jurassic–Early Cretaceous event coeval with the opening and the spreading of the Argo Abyssal Plain.This result points out the predominance of the effects of the Permo-Carboniferous Neotethys episode, whereas the extension related to the Argo Abyssal Plain rifting that occurred later and closer to the studied area, had only limited effects on the subsidence of the proximal Dampier Sub-basin. Therefore, it supports a tectonic model with two distinct modes of extension for the Late Palaeozoic (widespread) and the Mesozoic (localised) rifting phases.     

塔河油田上奥陶统良里塔格组储层特征及控制因素

塔河油田勘探表明,上奥陶统良里塔格组是潜在勘探层位.通过岩心、测井、薄片、物性、钻井和生产测试等资料综合分析,认为良里塔格组具两套岩性组合,顶部和底部为浅水高能沉积,中间为深水低能沉积,物性比中下奥陶统差,渗透率非均质性较强,主要受泥质条带和裂缝影响.储集空间主要包括溶蚀孔隙、溶蚀孔洞和裂缝3类.储层类型有孔隙-裂缝型和孔洞-裂缝型两类,后者是主要储层类型.储集空间形成主要受同生期和表生期岩溶作用、埋藏溶蚀作用和断裂作用4个因素控制,其中断裂作用是良里塔格组储层形成和分布的主控因素.     

Structurally controlled hydrothermal dolomites in Albian carbonates of the Asón valley,Basque Cantabrian Basin,Northern Spain

Shallow marine carbonate sedimentation dominated during the Albian in the western part of the Basque Cantabrian Basin in Northern Spain, forming the large Ramales Platform. This platform originated on a less subsiding tectonic block facing deeper and more subsiding areas to the south and east, which were created by tectonic activity in the Basin. Fracture-related hydrothermal dolomites hosted in these Albian carbonates are well exposed in the Asón valley area. Mapping in the studied area revealed several dolomite bodies related to main faults that cut the stratification almost at right angles. The bodies show a vertical development along fault-strike up to 900 m thick from which kilometre-scale branches expand following the stratification. Dolomitization is pervasive and independent of the limestone facies. Main dolomite facies are fine replacive, sucrosic and saddle. Petrography, C, O and Sr isotopes and fluid-inclusion analysis support a polyphase hydrothermal dolomitization at fluid temperatures between 75 °C and 240 °C and highly variable salinity of up to 22 wt.% NaCl. Fine dolomite replaced limestone first and then, sucrosic and saddle dolomites replaced part of the first dolomite and cemented newly created fracture porosity together with different calcite cements. Zebra dolomites and hydroclastic breccias are products of this later stage. Burial analysis of the host rock supports maximum burial temperatures of 80 °C and intense tectonic activity from the Albian to Turonian with a latest Albian peak subsidence. Albian stretching of the crust and subsequent ascent of the isotherms in the area is suggested to have produced sufficient heat to the dolomitizing fluids. The structural analysis indicates a strong transtensional tectonic activity in the studied area during Albian to Turonian time with the creation of an overstep between W–E trending and N–S trending faults. Fluids moved from subsiding areas to fractured uplifted parts of the Ramales Platform, enhanced by diapiric activity.     

Thermal regime of the northwest Indian rifted margin – Comparison with predictions

We use a simple approach to estimate the present-day thermal regime along the northwestern part of the Western Indian Passive Margin, offshore Pakistan. A compilation of bottom borehole temperatures and geothermal gradients derived from new observations of bottom-simulating reflections (BSRs) allows us to constrain the relationship between the thermal regime and the known tectonic and sedimentary framework along this margin. Effects of basin and crustal structure on the estimation of thermal gradients and heat flow are discussed. A hydrate system is located within the sedimentary deep marine setting and compared to other provinces on other continental margins. We calculate the potential radiogenic contribution to the surface heat flow along a profile across the margin. Measurements across the continental shelf show intermediate thermal gradients of 38–44 °C/km. The onshore Indus Basin shows a lower range of values spanning 18–31 °C/km. The Indus Fan slope and continental rise show an increasing gradient from 37 to 55 °C/km, with higher values associated with the thick depocenter. The gradient drops to 33 °C/km along the Somnath Ridge, which is a syn-rift volcanic construct located in a landward position relative to the latest spreading center around the Cretaceous–Paleogene transition.     

Pits,rifts and slumps: the summit structure of Piton de la Fournaise

A clear model of structures and associated stress fields of a volcano can provide a framework in which to study and monitor activity. We propose a volcano-tectonic model for the dynamics of the summit of Piton de la Fournaise (La Reunion Island, Indian Ocean). The summit contains two main pit crater structures (Dolomieu and Bory), two active rift zones, and a slumping eastern sector, all of which contribute to the actual fracture system. Dolomieu has developed over 100 years by sudden large collapse events and subsequent smaller drops that include terrace formation. Small intra-pit collapse scars and eruptive fissures are located along the southern floor of Dolomieu. The western pit wall of Dolomieu has a superficial inward dipping normal fault boundary connected to a deeper ring fault system. Outside Dolomieu, an oval extension zone containing sub-parallel pit-related fractures extends to a maximum distance of 225 m from the pit. At the summit the main trend for eruptive fissures is N80°, normal to the north–south rift zone. The terraced structure of Dolomieu has been reproduced by analogue models with a roof to width ratio of approximately 1, suggesting an original magma chamber depth of about 1 km. Such a chamber may continue to act as a storage location today. The east flank has a convex–concave profile and is bounded by strike-slip fractures that define a gravity slump. This zone is bound to the north by strike-slip fractures that may delineate a shear zone. The southern reciprocal shear zone is probably marked by an alignment of large scoria cones and is hidden by recent aa lavas. The slump head intersects Dolomieu pit and may slide on a hydrothermally altered layer known to be located at a depth of around 300 m. Our model has the summit activity controlled by the pit crater collapse structure, not the rifts. The rifts become important on the mid-flanks of the cone, away from pit-related fractures. On the east flank the superficial structures are controlled by the slump. We suggest that during pit subsidence intra-pit eruptions may occur. During tumescence, however, the pit system may become blocked and a flank eruption is more likely. Intrusions along the rift may cause deformation that subsequently increases the slump’s potential to deform. Conversely, slumping may influence the east flank stress distribution and locally control intrusion direction. These predictions can be tested with monitoring data to validate the model and, eventually, improve monitoring.     

The evolution of rifting on the volcanic margin of the Pelotas Basin and the contextualization of the Paraná–Etendeka LIP in the separation of Gondwana in the South Atlantic

The Pelotas Basin is the classical example of a volcanic passive margin displaying large wedges of seaward-dipping reflectors (SDR). The SDR fill entirely its rifts throughout the basin, characterizing the abundant syn-rift magmatism (133–113 Ma). The Paraná–Etendeka Large Igneous Province (LIP), adjacent to west, constituted the pre-rift magmatism (134–132 Ma). The interpretation of ultra-deep seismic lines showed a very different geology from the adjacent Santos, Campos and Espírito Santo Basins, which constitute examples of magma-poor passive margins. Besides displaying rifts totally filled by volcanic rocks, diverse continental crustal domains were defined in the Pelotas Basin, such as an outer domain, probably constituted by highly stretched and permeated continental igneous crust, and a highly reflective lower crust probably reflecting underplating.The analysis of rifting in this portion of the South Atlantic is based on seismic interpretation and on the distribution of regional linear magnetic anomalies. The lateral accretion of SDR to the east towards the future site of the breakup and the temporal relationship between their rift and sag geometries allows the reconstitution of the evolution of rifting in the basin. Breakup propagated from south to north in three stages (130–127.5; 127.5–125; 125–113 Ma) physically separated by oceanic fracture zones (FZ). The width of the stretched, thinned and heavily intruded continental crust also showed a three-stage increase in the same direction and at the same FZ. Consequently, the Continental-Oceanic Boundary (COB) shows three marked shifts, from west to east, from south to north, resulting into rift to margin segmentation. Rifting also propagated from west to east, in the direction of the final breakup, in each of the three segments defined. The importance of the Paraná–Etendeka LIP upon the overall history of rupturing and breakup of Western Gondwanaland seems to have been restricted in time and in space only to the Pelotas Basin.     

Tectonomagmatic origin of Precambrian rocks of Mexico and Argentina inferred from multi-dimensional discriminant-function based discrimination diagrams

Several new multi-dimensional tectonomagmatic discrimination diagrams employing log-ratio variables of chemical elements and probability based procedure have been developed during the last 10 years for basic-ultrabasic, intermediate and acid igneous rocks. There are numerous studies on extensive evaluations of these newly developed diagrams which have indicated their successful application to know the original tectonic setting of younger and older as well as sea-water and hydrothermally altered volcanic rocks. In the present study, these diagrams were applied to Precambrian rocks of Mexico (southern and north-eastern) and Argentina. The study indicated the original tectonic setting of Precambrian rocks from the Oaxaca Complex of southern Mexico as follows: (1) dominant rift (within-plate) setting for rocks of 1117–988 Ma age; (2) dominant rift and less-dominant arc setting for rocks of 1157–1130 Ma age; and (3) a combined tectonic setting of collision and rift for Etla Granitoid Pluton (917 Ma age). The diagrams have indicated the original tectonic setting of the Precambrian rocks from the north-eastern Mexico as: (1) a dominant arc tectonic setting for the rocks of 988 Ma age; and (2) an arc and collision setting for the rocks of 1200–1157 Ma age. Similarly, the diagrams have indicated the dominant original tectonic setting for the Precambrian rocks from Argentina as: (1) with-in plate (continental rift-ocean island) and continental rift (CR) setting for the rocks of 800 Ma and 845 Ma age, respectively; and (2) an arc setting for the rocks of 1174–1169 Ma and of 1212–1188 Ma age. The inferred tectonic setting for these Precambrian rocks are, in general, in accordance to the tectonic setting reported in the literature, though there are some inconsistence inference of tectonic settings by some of the diagrams. The present study confirms the importance of these newly developed discriminant-function based diagrams in inferring the original tectonic setting of Precambrian rocks.     

A geophysical view of the Southeastern Brazilian margin at Santos Basin: Insights into rifting evolution

This study investigates the rifting structures of Santos Basin at the Southeastern Brazilian margin, based on an integrated geophysical approach. Our aim is to constrain the crustal basement topography of central and northern Santos basin, the presence of magmatism and the role of inherited structures in space and time through the rifting processes. We present a new high resolution aeromagnetic dataset, which in correlation with gravity anomalies enables us to interpret the tectonic trends and crustal basement structures. We calculated the magnetic basement depth for the central and northern Santos Basin using power spectrum analysis. The obtained depths range between 2 and 9 kms, and are comparable with results from previous works. From our integrated study, three margin domains could be identified, which display distinct rifting structures and are characterized by important lateral variation along the margin. The proximal domain displays trends and magnetic basement blocks NE–SW oriented, i.e., parallel to inherited onshore crustal basement with an inflexion to E–W oriented trends; the necking domain is characterized by oblique magnetic basement highs and lows (E–W and NW–SE) and a structural trend change. The trends and magnetic basement highs are bounded by NW–SE negative anomalies, interpreted as transfer zones. Oceanwards at the distal domain, the lineaments and transfer zones show a progressive structural inflexion to ENE and E–W, sub-parallel to adjacent South Atlantic Fracture Zones. The observed crustal basement architecture and segmentation suggest the reactivation of pre-rift structures at the proximal margin and the obliquity of rifting relative to them. From the proximal domain oceanwards the structural pattern may reflect the passage from a “continental type” domain, where lithospheric inheritance controls the deformation, to a distal margin where this influence diminishes and “new” structural trends are formed. We propose that northern Santos Basin show evidences of an intensely deformed zone, where rift evolved under oblique extension, similar to that observed at transform margin segments.