Injection and arrest of dykes: implications for volcanic hazards

Dykes are the principal channels through which magma reaches the surface in volcanic eruptions. For this reason dykes observed in the field are commonly assumed to be feeders to lava flows. The actual proportion of dykes reaching the surface is, however, poorly known. In order to develop models for the purpose of estimating volcanic hazard, this proportion must be known. This follows because such models should not only consider the probability of dykes being injected from magma chambers during periods of unrest in the associated volcanoes, but also the probability of the injected dykes being arrested. This paper presents field data on several thousand dykes from Iceland and Tenerife (Canary Islands) indicating that many, and probably most, dykes become arrested at various crustal levels and never reach the surface to feed eruptions. Using the results of analytical and numerical models, it is shown that, for common loading conditions, the stress field in the vicinity of a magma chamber may favour the injection and propagation of dykes while the stress field at a certain distance from the chamber favours dyke arrest. This means that many dykes that are injected from the chamber propagate only for a very limited distance from the chamber to the point where they become arrested. The implication is that during periods of unrest in volcanoes, the probability of volcanic eruption is only a small fraction of the probability of dyke injection from the source magma chamber.     

湘鄂西中生代弧形叠加扩展的变形记录

通过对湘鄂西构造带进行大量的构造形迹测量、解析,结合研究区内构造变形年龄数据的统计分析.明确燕山中期(J3—K1)早期弧形构造弧顶方向为330°,并向两侧发散状分布,以大别山、黔中、黄陵隆起为约束点,湘鄂西形成了由南东侧至北东侧构造迹线由NE→NEE→EW→NWW逐渐偏转的弧形构造,最大主应力方向偏转近114°.同时早...     

Brittle Rock Failure in the Steg Lateral Adit of the Lötschberg Base Tunnel

Summary  During the crossing of brittle rock formations at the L?tschberg base tunnel, failure phenomena have been observed both at the tunnel face and at the walls. A detailed analysis has been undertaken to explain these behaviours, based on the recent developments of Canadian research on brittle failure mechanisms. At the tunnel walls, a very good agreement is found between the calculated and observed damage and between two prediction methods, i.e. a semi-empirical failure criterion and elastic calculations with the “brittle Hoek-Brown parameters.” Near the face, due to the 3D nature of the stress conditions, some limitations of these approaches have been highlighted, and the growth of wall failure has been analysed. This research allowed a better understanding of the brittle rock mass behaviour at the L?tschberg base tunnel and showed that brittle failure processes dominate the behaviour of deep, highly stressed excavations in massive to moderately jointed rock. It also illustrates where improvements to the adopted approaches are required.     

Rock Stress,Rock Stress Measurements,and the Integrated Stress Determination Method (ISDM)

The primary objectives of this work are to (1) improve the understanding of the prevailing stress distribution at the Äspö Hard Rock Laboratory (HRL) in SE Sweden by employing an integrated stress determination approach, and in order to accomplish this (2) extend the existing stress integration methodology denominated integrated stress determination method (ISDM; Cornet in Comprehensive Rock Engineering vol 3, Pergamon Press, Oxford, pp 413–432, 1993a). The new developments of the ISDM involve a 12-parameter representation of the regional stress field in the rock mass (i.e., the full stress tensor and its variation with depth) that is applicable to hydraulic stress data (sleeve fracturing, hydraulic fracturing, and hydraulic tests on pre-existing fractures), overcoring data (CSIR- and CSIRO-type of devices), and to combinations of hydraulic and overcoring stress data. For the latter case, the elastic parameters of the overcoring technique may be solved in situ by allowing the hydraulic stress data to constrain them. As a result, the problem then involves 14 model parameters. Results from the study show that the ISDM effectively improves the precision of the prevailing stress field determination and that it is especially powerful for identification of consistencies/inconsistencies in an existing data set. Indeed, this is the very basic premise and goal of stress integration; combine all available data to achieve as complete a characterization of the mechanical stress model as possible, and not to identify a solution that fits only loosely the maximum amount of stress data.     

2019年四川长宁MS6.0地震前破裂区内视应力和b值的变化

视应力和b值都可以反映地壳应力变化。当应力增加时,视应力会增加,而b值降低。因此,应力变化将导致视应力和b值之间呈负相关关系,即,根据视应力和b值之间的负相关关系可以研究地壳构造应力的变化。本文利用2000年1月—2019年12月长宁M_S6.0地震破裂区内3.0≤M_L≤3.6地震的视应力和2.0≤M_L≤4.3地震目录,研究了视应力和b值随时间的变化,发现:2013年2月—2017年3月间,视应力呈趋势上升变化,历时约4年,在震前两年时间内,视应力仍维持在较高水平。在视应力呈趋势上升变化期间,b值则呈趋势下降变化。当视应力维持在较高水平时,b值则维持在较低水平。即,长宁M_S6.0地震发生前,破裂区内视应力增加,同时b值下降。这表明,2019年长宁M_S6.0地震发生前破裂区内存在明显的构造应力增加过程,对地震孕育过程的认识和地震预测研究都具有启示意义。      

Splash detachment of sand particles under varying contact stress field of wind-driven raindrop impact

The effects of wind-driven rain (WDR) on sand detachment were studied under various raindrop obliquities. Results suggested a significant reduction in compressive stress on sand surfaces for a two-dimensional experimental set-up in a wind tunnel. During experiments, sand particles in splash cups were exposed to both wind-free rain (WFR) and WDR driven by horizontal winds of 6.4, 8.9 and 12.8 m s⁻¹ and rainfall intensities of 50, 60, 75 and 90-mm h⁻¹ to assess the sand detachment rate (D, in g m⁻² s⁻¹). The effects of sand moisture state (dry and wet) on the detachment of different-sized particles (0.20–0.50 and 0.50–2.00 mm, respectively) were also tested. Factorial analysis of variance showed that shear and compressive stress components evaluated by horizontal and vertical kinetic energy flux terms (KE_x and KE_y, respectively, in J m⁻² s⁻¹) along with their vector sum (KE_r, in J m⁻² s⁻¹) explained the variation in D. Neither sand size nor sand moisture was statistically significant alone although binary interactions of KE_r, KE_x and KE_y with the sand size and three-way interaction of KE_x, sand size and moisture were statistically significant. These results can be explained by size-dependent variation in sand compressibility and surface friction related to the total stress field developed by a given partition of shear and compressive stresses of wind-driven oblique raindrops (KE_x/KE_y). Further analysis of the variation of the unit sand detachment rate (D_u = D/KE_r = g J⁻¹) with rain inclination (α, in degrees) better revealed the effect of WDR obliquity on D_u that further changed with sand size class and moisture state. Finally, the difference in the resulting stress field differentiable by the oblique raindrop trajectories of the experiment over sand surface significantly affected the non-cohesive particle detachment rates, to some extent interacted with size-dependent compressibility and interface shear strength of sand grains.     

Modelling of sediment supply from torrent catchments in the Western Alps using the sediment contributing area (SCA) approach

The production of coarse sediment in mountain landscapes depends mainly on the type and activity of geomorphic processes and topographic and natural conditions (e.g. vegetation cover) of these catchments. The supply of sediment from these slopes to mountain streams and its subsequent transport lead to sediment connectivity, which describes the integrated coupled state of these systems. Studies from the Northern Calcareous Alps show that the size of the sediment contributing area (SCA), a subset of the drainage area that effectively delivers sediment to the channel network, can be used as a predictor of sediment delivery to mountain streams. The SCA concept is delineated on a digital elevation model (DEM) using a set of rules related to the steepness and length of slopes directly adjacent to the channel network, the gradient of the latter and the vegetation cover. The present study investigates the applicability of this concept to the Western Alps to identify geomorphologically active areas and to estimate mean annual sediment yield (SY) in mainly debris-flow-prone catchments. We use a statistical approach that shows a parameter optimisation and a linear regression of SY on SCA extent. We use a dataset of ~25 years of assessed coarse sediment accumulation in 35 sediment retention basins. In the investigated catchments, sediment transport is governed by several factors, mainly by the extent of vegetation-free areas with a minimum slope of 23° that is coupled to the channel network with a very low gradient of the latter. With our improved framework, we can show that the SCA approach can be applied to catchments that are widely distributed, in a large spatial scale (hectare area) and very heterogeneous in their properties. In general, the investigated catchments show high connectivity, resulting in significant correlations between long-term average yield and the size of the SCA.     

A new portable in situ flume for measuring critical shear stress on river beds

A new portable in situ flume(PISF)for measuring critical bed shear stress(CBSS)was developed in this study.The PISF consists of an open bottom sediment erosion chamber and an electrically-driven pump.Unlike most existing in situ flumes with similar designs,the new PISF does not rely on monitoring the flow conditions or particle density in the sediment erosion chamber;instead,it is a pre-calibrated flume.The calibration was performed by first determining CBSS of various selected sediment samples of known particle size and density(using the law of the wall),based on flow velocity-depth profiles measured in a 6 m straight open-channel flume using a Particle Image Velocimetry(PIV)system.These same particles of known CBSS were then used in the new in-situ flume under controlled lab conditions to obtain a series of calibration curves of CBSS vs.pump electrical power.A wide variety of particle types and sizes(simulated sediments)were used in this two-step calibration procedure to widen CBSS measurement range and simulate cohesive force effects.The size of the PISF is much smaller and more practical than other similar devices as lamellar flow conditions are not required and it can be applied to a wide range of sediment types including cohesive sediments.     

Spatially distributed modelling of soil erosion and sediment yield at regional scales in Spain

Initiated by the need to quantify erosion rates and the impacts of global changes on erosion, several attempts have been made to apply erosion models at regional scales. However, these models have often been directed towards on-site soil erosion estimates, emphasising sheet and rill erosion processes, and disregarding gully erosion, channel erosion and sediment transport. These models are therefore of limited use for the assessment of sediment yield, off-site impacts of erosion, and for the development of environmental management to control these impacts at regional scale. This study analyses and compares three spatially distributed models for the prediction of soil erosion and/or sediment yield at regional scales: the WATEM-SEDEM model that is based on the empirical Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) in combination with a sediment transport equation, the physics-based Pan European Soil Erosion Risk Assessment model (PESERA), and a newly developed Spatially Distributed Scoring model (SPADS). The three models were applied to 61 Spanish drainage basins and model predictions were evaluated against data on measured reservoir sedimentation rates. Global data sets on land use, climate, elevation and soil characteristics were used as model input for WATEM-SEDEM and SPADS, whereas published soil erosion estimates of PESERA at 1 km² resolution were used directly. SPADS and WATEM-SEDEM provided best results after separate calibration for basins with a Sediment Delivery Ratio (SDR) higher than 5% and those with an SDR lower than 5%. In this way, SPADS explained 67% of variation in sediment yield, while WATEM-SEDEM explained 48% of the variation. PESERA represents a promising alternative to the use of empirical models at the regional scale as it can be applied to very diverse environments with little calibration. However, PESERA provides soil erosion rates and not sediment yield estimates. For most basins PESERA soil erosion rates vary between fifty and close to zero percent of total sediment yield. Two major factors may explain this discrepancy between modelled soil erosion rates and measured sediment yield. First, it may be that PESERA underestimates soil erosion under Mediterranean conditions, although PESERA soil erosion rates are of the same order of magnitude as erosion rates measured in erosion plot studies. Second, gully-, river channel erosion and sediment transport processes may be much more important than sheet- and rill erosion for regional scale sediment yield in these environments. These issues therefore require further attention in future model development. Although spatially lumped models provide better predictions of sediment yield at the basin scale, and while validation of the predicted spatial patterns of sources and sinks of sediment requires further research, spatially distributed models are expected to be of value to support management decisions regarding the assessment of on-site and off-site impacts of erosion at the regional scale.     

含水量对高含冰量冻结砂土屈服面的影响

以往关于冻土屈服特性的研究很少考虑含水量的影响,但实际工程中经常遇到的是变含水量情况,因此本文通过-5.0℃条件下高含冰量冻结砂土的一系列三轴压缩试验,系统地研究了含水量对屈服特性的影响,并且由此建立了带有含水量参数的偏应力-剪应变增量型关系式。试验结果表明：随含水量的变化,应力-应变曲线类型有明显变化,即在不同的含水量区间,含水量对硬化规律有不同的影响特性,因此为了使屈服函数的形式更加简单和提高拟合准确度,对于屈服函数的具体形式应该根据塑性剪应变（硬化参数）和含水量不同区间进行分别确定;当塑性剪应变较小时（0.00%~1.00%）,随含水量的增大,偏应力逐渐增加,而当塑性剪应变较大时（大于1.00%）,随含水量的增大,偏应力有一个先减小后增大的变化过程,并且42.0%可以作为含水量转折点;通过分段硬化原则建立的带有含水量参数的屈服函数与偏应力-剪应变的增量型关系式的模拟值与试验点基本相吻合,这说明得到的屈服函数与偏应力-剪应变的增量型关系式可以用于不同含水量条件下屈服面和偏应力-剪应变曲线的预测。