The effect of conservation practices in sloped croplands on soil hydraulic properties and root‐zone moisture dynamics

Rain‐induced erosion and short‐term drought are the two factors that limit the productivity of croplands in the red soil region of subtropical China. The objective of this study was to estimate the effects of conservation practices on hydraulic properties and root‐zone water dynamics of the soil. A 3‐year experiment was performed on a slope at Xianning. Four treatments were evaluated for their ability to reduce soil erosion and improve soil water conditions. Compared with no practices (CK) and living grass strips (GS), the application of polyacrylamide (PAM) significantly reduced soil crust formation during intense rainfall, whereas rice straw mulching (SM) completely abolished soil crust formation. The SM and PAM treatments improved soil water‐stable aggregates, with a redistribution of micro‐aggregates into macro‐aggregates. PAM and SM significantly increased the soil water‐holding capacity. These practices mitigated the degradation of the soil saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ks) during intense rainfalls. These methods increased soil water storage but with limited effects during heavy rainfalls in the wet period. In contrast, during the dry period, SM had the highest soil water storage, followed by PAM and CK. Grass strips had the lowest soil water storage because of the water uptake during the vigorous grass growth. A slight decline in the soil moisture resulted in a significant decrease in the unsaturated hydraulic conductivity (Ku) of the topsoil. Therefore, the hydraulic conductivity in the field is governed by soil moisture, and the remaining soil moisture is more important than improving soil properties to resist short‐term droughts. As a result, SM is the most effective management practice when compared with PAM and GS, although they all protect the soil hydraulic properties during wet periods. These results suggest that mulching is the best strategy for water management in erosion‐threatened and drought‐threatened red soils. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Seasonal variations in infiltrability of moss‐dominated biocrusts on aeolian sand and loess soil in the Chinese Loess Plateau

Biocrust effects on soil infiltration have attracted increasing attention in dryland ecosystems, but their seasonal variations in infiltrability have not yet been well understood. On the Chinese Loess Plateau, soil infiltrability indicated by saturated hydraulic conductivity (K_s) of biocrusts and bare soil, both on aeolian sand and loess soil, was determined by disc infiltrometer in late spring (SPR), midsummer (SUM), and early fall (FAL). Then their correlations with soil biological and physiochemical properties and water repellency index (RI) were analysed. The results showed that the biocrusts significantly decreased K_s both on sand during SPR, SUM, and FAL (by 43%, 66%, and 35%, respectively; P < .05) and on loess (by 42%, 92%, and 10%, respectively; P <.05). As compared with the bare soil, the decreased K_s in the biocrusted surfaces was mostly attributed to the microorganism biomass and also to the increasing content of fine particles and organic matter. Most importantly, both the biocrusts and bare soil exhibited significant (F ≥ 11.89, P ≤ .003) seasonal variations in K_s, but their patterns were quite different. Specifically, the K_s of bare soil gradually decreased from SPR to SUM (32% and 42% for sand and loess, respectively) and FAL (29% and 39%); the K_s of biocrusts also decreased from SPR to SUM (59% and 92%) but then increased in FAL (36% and 588%). Whereas the seasonal variations in K_s of the biocrusts were closely correlated with the seasonal variations in RI, the RI values were not high enough to point at hydrophobicity. Instead of that, the seasonal variations of K_s were principally explained by the changes in the crust biomass and possibly by the microbial exopolysaccharides. We conclude that the biocrusts significantly decreased soil infiltrability and exhibited a different seasonal variation pattern, which should be carefully considered in future analyses of hydropedological processes.     

Supraglacial weathering crust dynamics inferred from cryoconite hole hydrology

Water levels in cryoconite holes were monitored at high resolution over a 3‐week period on Austre Brøggerbreen (Svalbard). These data were combined with melt and energy balance modelling, providing insights into the evolution of the glacier's near‐surface hydrology and confirming that the hydrology of the near‐surface, porous ice known as the ‘weathering crust’ is dynamic and analogous to a shallow‐perched aquifer. A positive correlation between radiative forcing of melt and drainage efficiency was found within the weathering crust. This likely resulted from diurnal contraction and dilation of interstitial pore spaces driven by variations in radiative and turbulent fluxes in the surface energy balance, occasionally causing ‘sudden drainage events’. A linear decrease in water levels in cryoconite holes was also observed and attributed to cumulative increases in near‐surface ice porosity over the measurement period. The transport of particulate matter and microbes between cryoconite holes through the porous weathering crust is shown to be dependent upon weathering crust hydraulics and particle size. Cryoconite holes therefore yield an indication of the hydrological dynamics of the weathering crust and provide long‐term storage loci for cryoconite at the glacier surface. This study highlights the importance of the weathering crust as a crucial component of the hydrology, ecology and biogeochemistry of the glacier ecosystem and glacierized regions and demonstrates the utility of cryoconite holes as natural piezometers on glacier surfaces. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Shape of pinch and swell structures as a viscosity indicator: Application to lower crustal polyphase rocks

Pinch and swell structures occur where a more competent layer in a weaker matrix is subjected to layer-parallel extension. In this contribution, we use numerical models to explore the use of pinch and swell structure shape symmetry and asymmetry as a determinant of relative viscosity between layers. Maximum asymmetry is attained when the matrix viscosity on one side is subtly weaker than the competent layer, while the other side is significantly weaker.Our numerical results are directly applied to asymmetrically developed pinch and swell structures in exposed lower continental crust. Here, shape geometries observed in a shear zone comprised of plagioclase-dominated, garnet-dominated and mixed amphibole-plagioclase-dominated bands, reveals that the plagioclase-dominated band is the most competent band and is marginally stronger (2×) and significantly stronger (10–40×) than the fine grained garnet-dominated and mixed amphibole-plagioclase-dominated band, respectively. Based on the experimentally determined viscosity of a plagioclase-dominated material and quantitative microstructural analysis, the viscosity range of the natural rock bands is 2.8 × 10¹⁵ to 1.1 × 10¹⁷ Pa s. Consequently, the assumption that the experimentally-derived plagioclase flow law is an appropriate proxy for the middle to lower continental crust may lead to a viscosity over-estimation by up to forty times.     

The interplay and effects of deformation and crystallized melt on the rheology of the lower continental crust,Fiordland, New Zealand

Microstructural, electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD), and misorientation analyses of a migmatitic granulite-facies orthogneiss from the exhumed lower crust of a Cretaceous continental arc in Fiordland, New Zealand show how deformation was accommodated during and after episodes of melt infiltration and high-grade metamorphism. Microstructures in garnet, omphacite, plagioclase, and K-feldspar suggest that an early stage of deformation was achieved by dislocation creep of omphacite and plagioclase, with subsequent deformation becoming partitioned into plagioclase. Continued deformation after melt infiltration resulted in strain localization in the leucosome of the migmatite, where a change of plagioclase deformation mechanism promoted the onset of grain boundary sliding, most likely accommodated by diffusion creep, in fine recrystallized plagioclase grains. Our results suggest three distinctive transitions in the rheology of the lower crust of this continental arc, where initial weakening was primarily achieved by deformation of both omphacite and plagioclase. Subsequent strain localization in plagioclase of the leucosome indicates that the zones of former melt are weaker than the restite, and that changes in deformation mechanisms within plagioclase, and an evolution of its strength, primarily control the rheology of the lower crust during and after episodes of melting and magma addition.     

全球冥古宙的研究进展和存在问题

冥古宙是地球上最老的一个地质历史时期,由于缺少可靠的岩石记录一直没有得到国际地学界的重视和承认,到2004年才在建议的国际地层表中使用了冥古宙这一术语,定义从地球形成到出现地球最老岩石这段地球历史。但冥古宙与太古宙没有明确的地质界线,一些研究者提出了不同的年代界线(3.85Ga,4.0Ga,4.03Ga),目前还存在较大分歧。目前已知残存的冥古宙岩石只有两处,一处是加拿大的阿卡斯塔片麻岩(Acasta gneiss)中两个英云闪长岩和一个变质花岗闪长岩。前者锆石U-Pb年龄为4002±4Ma和4012±6Ma,后者为4031±1Ma。另一处是东南极索尼山(Mount Sones)的麻粒岩相英云闪长质片麻岩,已获得U-Pb年龄为3927±10Ma。世界上最老的表壳岩(≥3870Ma)出露在格陵兰。冥古宙年代久远,地球形成最初的600~700Ma的初始岩石经历了陨石撞击、地壳再循环、重熔等改造,甚至再循环到地幔,几乎已经消失殆尽。目前主要以年轻岩石中的碎屑锆石或继承锆石作为桥梁,来追索这些古老锆石原来母岩的类型、特征及成因。3800Ma的碎屑锆石已在全球十多个地区发现,而以西澳伊尔岗克拉通的杰克山最多最全,从3800Ma到4404Ma都有,在3840Ma,3900~3920Ma,4000~4200Ma,4260~4300Ma和4404Ma显示峰值,其中以3900~4200Ma最为发育,4404Ma是目前世界公认的最老碎屑锆石。此外在北美克拉通、南非克拉通、华北克拉通等古老克拉通以及一些年轻造山带中都发现有冥古宙的碎屑锆石,这些锆石是追索冥古宙地质事件的重要桥梁。通过对冥古宙碎屑锆石的研究提出了很多值得重视和进一步研究的课题和内容。包括早期地壳的性质,一些锆石具有与太古宙之后岩浆锆石特征相似的环带结构,因此这些碎屑锆石的母岩大部分被认为相当花岗质,来自老地壳的重熔。冥古宙碎屑锆石的Hf同位素等综合分析表明这些碎屑锆石来源于中性熔岩的结晶,或许表明早期地壳具有中性成分特征。冥古宙锆石的成因也是一个重要的课题,根据锆石中钛的含量、锆石Ti饱和温度计计算的温度以及锆石的一些结构特征,有的研究者提出冥古宙相当一部分碎屑锆石是陨石撞击导致的岩石熔融结晶产生的,是追溯地球早期撞击事件的重要手段。在4300Ma的碎屑锆石中包裹有金刚石和石墨晶体,前者表明锆石的母岩曾处于高压条件,而后者石墨的碳同位素接近有机碳,有人认为可能为生命起源的迹象。多个地区的碎屑锆石的边部Th/U比值低,U-Pb年龄为4000Ma左右,属于变质作用的产物,表明当时地壳已具有一定厚度。冥古宙碎屑锆石的研究提出了很多重要的问题,但是由于资料有限,有些认识还存在矛盾,还需要获得更多实际资料,才能对冥古宙的地质事件过程取得更可靠的科学认识。因此今后应加强可能赋存古老碎屑锆石地区的寻找,并发现更多古老碎屑锆石。对现有的古老碎屑锆石加强综合研究以及各地区的对比研究。     

The variation of crustal stretching and different modes of rifting along the Australian southern continental margin

The southern margin of Australia is a passive continental margin, formed during a Late Jurassic–Cretaceous rifting phase. The development of this passive margin is mainly associated with extensional processes that caused crustal thinning. In this work, we have measured the amount of extension and the stretching factor (β factor) across seven transect profiles approximately evenly distributed across the margin. The obtained results show that the amount of extension and the β factor along the margin vary from west to east. The lowest amount of extension, low–intermediate β factors and a very narrow margin are observed in the western part with 80 km of extension and is underlain mostly by the Archean Yilgarn Craton and the Albany–Fraser Orogen. The Gawler Craton in the centre of the south Australian margin is another region of low extension and low–intermediate β factor. The largest amount of extension (384 km) and the largest β factor (β = 1.88) are found in the eastern part of the passive margin in an area underlain by Phanerozoic Tasman Orogen units. Our results imply that there is a strong control of the age and thickness of the continental lithosphere on the style of rifting along the Australian passive margin. Rifting of old and cold lithosphere results in a narrow passive margin, with the formation of relatively few faults with relatively wide spacing, while rifting of younger, warmer lithosphere leads to wide rifting that is accommodated by a large number of faults with small spacing.     

皖南晚中生代花岗闪长岩地球化学:成岩成矿制约

皖南地区是铜、钼、金多金属成矿区,成矿与晚中生代花岗闪长岩类关系密切。近十年来,皖南花岗闪长岩的成因仍然存在分歧。本次报道了皖南花岗闪长岩全岩主、微量元素和锆石原位元素数据。皖南花岗闪长岩(Si O2=64.3%~70.8%)为高钾钙碱性、过铝质岩石,具有相似的埃达克岩特征:高Si O2、Sr/Y(17.1)和(La/Yb)N(14.9)比值,低Yb(1.72×10-6)和Y(18.4×10-6)含量。它们也具有较低Al2O3和Cr(3.40×10-6~10.0×10-6)含量、低Mg#(0.34~0.42)和Nb/Ta(9.6~13.3)值,高K2O和Ba(404×10-6)含量,高K2O/Na2O(0.89~1.55)、Th/La(0.27~0.51)和Th/U(2.79~7.49)比值。锆石原位地球化学特征显示其岩浆源区为低温(锆石Ti-in-zircon温度均值674℃)和高氧逸度(lgfO2集中在-21.4~-9.18,均值-16.4;锆石Ce4+/Ce3+平均值276)的陆壳。这些特征说明皖南花岗闪长岩可能起源于较年轻的加厚下地壳的部分熔融,并经历了斜长石、钾长石和铁镁矿物等结晶分异作用。它们可能形成于与古太平洋板块俯冲密切相关的大陆活动边缘弧至弧后拉张构造转换背景。本区大规模Cu、Mo、Au成矿作用与岩浆的高氧逸度密切相关,而锆石Ce4+/Ce3+可作为矿床勘探一个有效的指标。     

从藏南陆-陆碰撞带深部结构构造演化探讨斑岩铜矿的成岩成矿问题

本文以INDEPTH项目对印度大陆与欧亚大陆碰撞带深部成像结果为基础,从构造演化角度探讨藏南陆-陆碰撞带冈底斯斑岩铜矿带的成矿作用问题。深部探测给出的碰撞带深部结构与侯增谦等地质学家提出的深部结构有较大的异同,如何协调起来以深化对藏南陆-陆碰撞条件下成矿作用的认识,这是本文讨论的中心。藏南碰撞带成矿实际上是在新特提斯大洋岩石圈俯冲形成的冈底斯岩浆弧成矿作用的基础上,再经过陆-陆碰撞挤压强烈改造后的再成矿。碰撞带的深部结构构造演化的特点是:(1)新特提斯大洋岩石圈板块向北连续俯冲了约120 Ma,形成的冈底斯陆缘火山岩浆弧带,这导致了陆缘带地壳增厚并含有大量的地幔岩浆流体物质(如南美安第斯成矿带那样);(2)在印度大陆与冈底斯陆缘弧接近碰撞时,在对挤中新特提斯大洋洋壳与大洋岩石圈地幔发生向上挤出与向下拆沉,并使部分洋壳残片和大洋岩石圈物质保存在中上地壳内;(3)两大陆岩石圈碰撞对接后,印度岩石圈地幔加深达70~80 km并沿地壳底部向北推进,并将加厚地壳内大量的成矿物质、钙碱性岩浆,洋壳及新生的下地壳,以及部分地幔物质从地壳底部将其围限起来,成为后期再成矿的物质基础;(4)查明了碰撞带深部壳/幔间产生了一层中间速度层(相当于MASH层),在中上地壳部位出现一层巨大的部分熔融层;(5)在碰撞挤压下冈底斯带内产生多组断裂构造,大型逆冲断裂系与背冲断裂,并引发了含矿岩浆的再活动,并在浮力(下地壳内)和挤压力作用下多次活动上升生成斑岩型铜矿床;(6)成矿后地表遭受过强烈的风化剥蚀作用,使矿床出露地表。     

昌宁-孟连结合带牛井山早古生代埃达克岩锆石U-Pb年龄、岩石成因及其地质意义

昌宁-孟连结合带是西南三江地区重要的古特提斯结合带,本文报道该带牛井山蛇绿混杂岩带内的早古生代英云闪长岩的锆石U-Pb年龄和Hf同位素、全岩地球化学特征,探讨其岩石成因,揭示早古生代(原)特提斯演化过程和恢复古地理格局。利用LA-ICP-MS对英云闪长岩进行锆石U-Pb定年,获得~(206)Pb/~(238)U加权平均年龄为468±2Ma(MSWD=1.4,n=22),代表岩浆岩结晶时代。对锆石进行原位微区Hf同位素分析获得锆石ε_(Hf)(t)=+1.6~+2.8。牛井山英云闪长岩具有高的SiO_2(61.6%~67.16%),Al_2O_3(15.4%~17.64%),Na_2O(2.93%~3.25%)含量,高的Na_2O/K_2O(3.9~5.4)比值。微量元素具有高Sr(469×10~(-6)~533×10~(-6)),低Yb(0.66×10~(-6)~1.22×10~(-6))和Y(8.5×10~(-6)~16.3×10~(-6)),Eu正异常(1.01~1.37)的特征。此外,在同等SiO 2条件下,还具有相对高的Mg~#和MgO(Mg~#=50~51,MgO=2.84%~3.58%)。这些特征表明英云闪长岩具有高镁埃达克岩的性质。岩石成因研究表明牛井山高镁埃达克岩很可能是俯冲洋壳加上部分大洋沉积物部分熔融并与上覆地幔橄榄岩反应的产物。早古生代洋壳俯冲成因的埃达克岩的发现证明昌宁-孟连特提斯洋演化历史可追溯至约468Ma。昌宁-孟连结合带早古生代岩浆作用与龙木错-双湖结合带早古生代洋壳残片的时代一致、构造属性相似,我们认为昌宁-孟连结合带与木错-双湖结合带可对比,它们代表了一个统一的古生代特提斯大洋残余。