Conical folds and apparent rotations in paleomagnetism (a case study in the Southern Pyrenees)

The so-called apparent rotation was defined as the angular deviation between a local paleomagnetic direction (after the standard bedding correction) and their corresponding paleomagnetic reference [J. Geophys. Res. 85 (1980) 3659]. In this paper, we make a theoretical exploration on this concept and we conclude that (depending on the number, sequence, orientation and magnitude of the deformation axes that have affected to the rock volume) the apparent rotation may be the addition of a vertical-axis rotation plus a spurious rotation. The later is an error whose origin is the inappropriate application of the bedding correction during the restoration (which does not fit the reverse sequence of deformations). Then, Apparent rot. (s.l.) (δ)=Spurious rot. (θ)+Vertical-axis rot. (β).Conical folds are complex geometries that cannot be restored by using the bedding correction. However, appearance of apparent and spurious rotations has not been studied even though the presence of this kind of folds is very common in fold and thrust belts. In this paper, we show a way to restore these structures and its associated paleomagnetic data by means of forward modelling on a stereographic projection. The modelling has to be based on a good characterization of the geometry (fold axis orientation) and understanding of the kinematics of the fold. General modelling has also allowed us to predict the apparent rotation in conical synclines. Its magnitude depends on the semiapical angle and on the degree of development of the fold; the sense of the rotation (clockwise or counter-clockwise) will depend on the sense of rotation the fold axis.The western External Sierras provide an excellent case study of apparent rotations due to the presence of a conical fold in the footwall (Ebro foreland basin) of the South Pyrenean sole thrust. In addition, a vertical-axis clockwise rotation up to 47° (32° in average) has been detected in the hagingwall. An apparent rotation up to 28° (20° in average) is observed in the footwall of the structure when a simple bedding correction is used. This deviation does not fit with the expected Ebro basin direction (reference) and is caused by the effect of the Riglos conical syncline, developed by the flexure of the foot wall ramp of the South Pyrenean sole thrust. The forward modelling carried out considering the geometry and kinematics (non significant rotations in the autochthonous foot wall) of this structure predicts very well the paleomagnetic observations in the field (geographic coordinates) with angular departures of only 5° (in average). The only application of the bedding correction would introduce errors (spurious rotations up to 21°, 12 in average) related to the conical geometry that would not allow the differentiation of these distinct structural units.     

Re-folded structure of syn-orogenic granitoids(Padrón dome,NW Iberia):Assessing rheological evolution of cooling continental crust in a collisional setting

This contribution discusses about the rheological, kinematic and dynamic frameworks necessary to produce recumbent and upright folds from syn-orogenic granitic massifs that were formed during an early stage of magma genesis related to the onset of a migmatitic dome. Syn-kinematic granitoids occurring within the high-grade infrastructure of the Padron migmatitic dome(NW Iberia) are deformed into largescale recumbent folds(D_2) that are later affected by upright folds(D_3). Petrostructural analysis of a selected area of this dome reveals that after a period of crustal thickening(D_1), NNW-directed extensional flow gave way to recumbent folds and penetrative axial plane foliation(S_2). Superimposed subhorizontal compression resulted in upright folds(D_3). A closer view into the dynamics of the dome allows exploring the factors that may condition the nucleation of folds with contrasting geometries during progressive deformation of molten continental crust. The formation of folds affecting syn-kinematic granitoids suggests a cooling metamorphic path in migmatitic domes. Active and passive folding mechanisms require a crystallizing(cooling) magma to nucleate folds. A more competent metamorphic host inhibits fold nucleation from much less competent magmas. As it crystallizes, magma becomes more rigid(competent),and approaches viscosity values of its host. Passive folding is favored when no significant competence contrast exists between magma and host, so this folding mechanism is more likely shortly after magma genesis and emplacement. In such conditions, and under dominant subhorizontal flow accompanied by flattening(D_2),passive folding would produce isoclinal recumbent geometries. Further magma cooling introduces a shift into the rheological behavior of partially molten crust. Thereon, crystallizing magma bodies would represent significant competence contrasts relative to their host. At this point, buckling is a more likely folding mechanism, and more regular, buckle folds re-fold previous structures after significant cooling. The geometry of resulting folds is upright due to dominant subhorizontal compression(D_3) at this stage.     

The kinematic history of the Singhbhum Shear Zone

The progressive deformation of the Singhbhum Shear Zone (SSZ) involved the initiation of a mylonitic foliation, its deformation by three generations of reclined folds and superposition of two later groups of folds, i.e., a group of asymmetric folds with subhorizontal or gently plunging axes and a group of gentle and open, transverse and more or less upright folds. The occurrence of sheath folds and U-shaped deformed lineations indicate that the reclined folds were produced by rotation of fold hinges through large angles. The total displacement along the SSZ was compounded of displacements along numerous mesoscopic shear zones. The cleavages in the shear lenses and the mesoscopic shear zones cannot be distinguished as C and S surfaces. They have the same kinematic significance and were produced by ductile deformation, although there were localized discontinuous displacements along both sets,-of cleavages. A mylonitic foliation had formed before the development of the earliest recognizable folds. Its time of formation and folding could be synchronous, diachronous or partly overlapping in time in the different domains of the SSZ.     

高压孔隙CO2/水作用下完整四川三叠系砂岩剪切特性的试验研究

越来越多的地下岩土工程面临着高压孔隙流体的作用,研究高压孔隙CO2/水作用下岩石的剪切特性对工程设计及安全施工、运营具有重要意义。研究了完整四川三叠系砂岩在干燥、饱和水、高压孔隙水和高压孔隙CO24种不同条件下的剪切特性。研究发现:4种不同条件下砂岩的剪切强度和残余剪切强度都会随着预剪切面上有效正应力的增加而增加;在干燥条件下随正应力的增加砂岩的剪切刚度也会增大。孔隙压力对砂岩剪切强度的影响遵守Terzaghi有效应力原理。水和CO2对砂岩的剪切强度具有显著的弱化作用,水会明显降低内摩擦角φ,而CO2对φ几乎不影响;而水对黏结力c的影响小于CO2的影响。其弱化作用可以归结为水/CO2-岩石之间的相互作用,由于砂岩中含有黏土成分,水和CO2都会对黏土产生软化作用。     

水泥环参数和套管形状参数对套管强度的影响

目前,国内外均面临着严重的套损问题,因此研究套管强度的影响因素是必要的。通过建立套管和水泥环的三维有限元模型,并利用Ansys有限元分析软件研究了水泥环参数、套管偏心率和椭圆度对套管强度的影响。模拟结果表明,只有水泥环的弹性模量超过一定值,增加水泥环的厚度、弹性模量才能提高套管的强度,否则还会增加套管内壁的等效应力,并且得出了水泥环对套管强度的增幅效果是套管径厚比的函数;此外套管的强度随着套管偏心率和椭圆度的增加而大幅度降低,容易引起套管屈服破坏。     

论褶皱系和挤压型盆地逆冲断层的成因机制

根据材料力学纵弯杆概念,从定量角度分析了横向剪应力在纵弯褶曲中的分布和演化。纵弯褶曲的受力状态和变形情况与受轴向挤压面弯曲的矩形横断面纵弯杆相类似。由于纵弯杆中横向剪应力呈扇型分布,所产生的逆冲断层亦组成剖面上的扇型。扇状逆冲断层往往在褶曲陡翼发育,产生于褶皱变形达到一定阶段之后。     

Internal geometry of a thrust sheet,eastern Proterozoic belt,Godavari Valley,South India

A small thrust sheet, named Pedda Gutta thrust sheet, consisting of calcareous to cherty argillites and cherts, and juxtaposed against tidal-intertidal cross-bedded quartzites and stromatolitic and sileceous limestone in the eastern Proterozoic belt, Godavari Valley, exhibits structures comparable in style to those of the external zone of a fold-thrust mountain belt. A wide spectrum of periodic and aperiodic mesoscopic folds varying from upright ones with rounded hinges and attenuated limbs, through noncylindrical kinks to whalebacks and sheath-like forms have developed within the small volume of the thrust sheet, the preserved thickness of which is of the order of 50 metres (comparable in scale to cleavage duplexes). Cleavage development is also heterogeneous across the width of the sheet. Displacement transfer from faults to folds and vice-versa is a common feature. On the basis of the distribution of the mesoscopic structures of varying style within the sheet and localization of fault rocks, three slices (wedges) have been recognized, each bounded on the east by a thrust which is steep at the current erosion level but interpreted to be of listric form making the thrust network comparable in architecture, though not in scale, to a hinterland (west) dipping imbricate fan.     

Progressive development of s-type flanking folds in simple shear

Flanking structures are deflections of planar or linear fabric elements in a rock alongside a crosscutting element (CE), e.g. a vein or fault. This study provides new results from analogue experiments, which test and extend recent numerical models of flanking structures. A linear viscous matrix material (PDMS) was deformed in a ring shear rig that allows continuous observation to large values of shear strain. Rotational behaviour, offset and deflection of marker lines around a predefined, lubricated CE were monitored for different initial orientations of the fault with respect to the shear zone boundary, and the results were compared with numerical results and natural examples. At high initial angles to the shear zone boundary (>135°), a structure previously described as an ‘s-type flanking fold’ develops. During progressive deformation, an initially straight marker line passing through the centre of the CE is offset in a sense synthetic with the bulk sense of shear and shows a shortening displacement across the CE. Simultaneously, this central marker line is deflected and forms symmetrical folds, which are convex in the direction of shear along the CE (i.e. normal drag). Both offset and deflection of the marker lines decrease towards the tips of the fault. Natural examples of s-type flanking folds, directly comparable with the model results, are more common than is generally appreciated.     

江西银坑铅锌银矿田基底褶皱构造特征与南北向矿化带研究

为了探究银坑铅锌银多金属矿田的构造特征和找矿潜力,选取区内基底复式褶皱作为研究区,开展野外调查和室内分析。揭示基底褶皱几何学和应力场特征并探讨对成矿的控制作用,重点研究褶皱作用晚期纵张断裂中的SN向交代充填石英矿脉的成矿特征。通过实测褶皱轴迹与两翼产状,分析其几何形态特征为：枢纽走向由北至南为NE→NNE→SN→NNW,翼间角范围为33°~52°,褶皱类型为紧闭陡立尖棱状褶皱。通过褶皱分析法与节理统计法,求得基底褶皱自加里东期至燕山期主应力方向变化为EW→NWW→NNW→NEE。基底地层早期受EW向挤压而形成SN向构造带与大量的SN向褶劈理带。应力场转换期间地层受到的应力由挤压向拉张转换,促进褶劈理带内形成SN向纵张裂隙,为后期NE向矿化提供空间。通过实测与观察,基底褶皱首次发现近SN向矿化石英矿脉充填于褶皱作用晚期的切层纵张和次级横张裂隙。含矿性分析显示,脉中铅、锌平均含量为0.133%和0.190%,金、银的平均含量0.127 g/t和15.33 g/t,具有较高的矿化特征。在桥子坑矿区地表和牛形坝矿区60、104和140中段新发现12条SN向矿脉,表明该区有巨大的成矿潜力。     

焦坪矿区的斜向交织构造及其控煤作用

区内斜向交织构造可划分为四级,其共同特点是坳陷(同期向斜)宽阔,隆起(同期背斜)狭窄;坳陷区有利于煤层的聚积和保存,隆起区不利于煤层的聚积和保存,甚至成为无煤区。聚煤作用及煤层厚度变化规律受着不同级次的斜向交织构造综合迭加效应的控制。