Changes in the global value of ecosystem services

In 1997, the global value of ecosystem services was estimated to average $33 trillion/yr in 1995 $US ($46 trillion/yr in 2007 $US). In this paper, we provide an updated estimate based on updated unit ecosystem service values and land use change estimates between 1997 and 2011. We also address some of the critiques of the 1997 paper. Using the same methods as in the 1997 paper but with updated data, the estimate for the total global ecosystem services in 2011 is $125 trillion/yr (assuming updated unit values and changes to biome areas) and $145 trillion/yr (assuming only unit values changed), both in 2007 $US. From this we estimated the loss of eco-services from 1997 to 2011 due to land use change at $4.3–20.2 trillion/yr, depending on which unit values are used. Global estimates expressed in monetary accounting units, such as this, are useful to highlight the magnitude of eco-services, but have no specific decision-making context. However, the underlying data and models can be applied at multiple scales to assess changes resulting from various scenarios and policies. We emphasize that valuation of eco-services (in whatever units) is not the same as commodification or privatization. Many eco-services are best considered public goods or common pool resources, so conventional markets are often not the best institutional frameworks to manage them. However, these services must be (and are being) valued, and we need new, common asset institutions to better take these values into account.     

Choosing Geographic Units for Choropleth Rate Maps,with an Emphasis on Public Health Applications

Choropleth maps are the most widely used map type for mapping rates, such as those involving disease, crime, and socioeconomic indicators. The essential step of choosing a geographic unit to map is often made in an ad hoc manner. Among the desirable characteristics of choropleth mapping units are high degree of resolution, homogeneity of population size, homogeneity of land area, observation of minimum population thresholds and land area thresholds, temporal stability and currency, compactness of shape, audience familiarity, data availability, and the functional relevance of the unit to the phenomena mapped. Because of the uneven distribution of human populations, no single geographic unit can meet all of these characteristics in practice, and a well designed choropleth map necessarily involves some compromise. We present guidelines for choosing geographic units that take into account the above criteria, considering 12 geographic units ranging from census blocks to states. Even allowing for differences in scale and purpose, some units confer clear advantages over others.     

A method for groundwater prospect zonation in data poor areas using remote sensing and GIS: a case study in Kalikavu Panchayath of Malappuram district,Kerala, India

Abstract

The present study was an attempt to delineate potential groundwater zones in Kalikavu Panchayat of Malappuram district, Kerala, India. The geo-spatial database on geomorphology, landuse, geology, slope and drainage network was generated in a geographic information system (GIS) environment from satellite data, Survey of India topographic sheets and field observations. To understand the movement and occurrence of groundwater, the geology, geomorphology, structural set-up and recharging conditions have to be well understood. In the present study, the potential recharge areas are delineated in terms of geology, geomorphology, land use, slope, drainage pattern, etc. Various thematic data generated were integrated using a heuristic method in the GIS domain to generate maps showing potential groundwater zones. The composite output map scores were reclassified into different zones using a decision rule. The final output map shows different zones of groundwater prospect, viz., very good (15.57% of the area), good (43.74%), moderate (28.38%) and poor (12.31%). Geomorphic units such as valley plains, valley fills and alluvial terraces were identified as good to excellent prospect zones, while the gently sloping lateritic uplands were identified as good to moderate zones. Steeply sloping hilly terrains underlain by hard rocks were identified as poor groundwater prospect zones.     

西藏羌多地区早-中二叠世生物地层特征

本文在西藏羌多地区羌多幅1∶25万区域地质调查基础之上,对分布于羌多地区的早-中二叠世生物地层进行了详细的研究和划分,厘定了该区早-中二叠世岩石地层单元,建立了3个腕足类化石组合和4个蜒类化石组合带,为西藏二叠系地层的研究与划分提供了重要依据.     

华北东部盆地叠合单元划分及其石油地质意义

华北东部是中国重要的能源基地,在地学界被认为属典型的叠合盆地,形成于前寒武纪结晶基底之上,经历了9 个演化阶段,具有复杂的地质结构,体现了多期次、多种性质、多个延伸方向盆地的垂向叠加效应。文中将各期次单型盆地的静态格局分析与多期盆地的动态叠合研究有机地结合在一起,提出了叠合单元的概念,区划出继承型沉降（Ⅰ）、中沉新剥型（Ⅱ1）、中复新沉型（Ⅱ2）、中复新剥型（Ⅱ3）、中剥新沉型（Ⅱ4）和继承型隆剥（Ⅲ）等叠合单元类型。通过对各叠合单元石油地质条件分析,确定了Ⅱ2,Ⅱ4 型叠合单元为以古生界为源的有利勘探区,Ⅰ,Ⅱ2 型叠合单元为以中生界为源的有利勘探区,为准确分析和评价叠合盆地的石油地质条件提供了一种新的思路与方法。     

The bed morphology of upland single‐thread channels in semi‐arid environments: evidence of repeating bedforms and their wider implications for gravel‐bed rivers

Single‐thread, gravel‐bed streams of moderate slope in the northern Negev are characterized by three channel units: bars exhibit steeper than average slopes and poorly sorted mixtures of small–medium cobbles and coarse–very coarse pebbles; flats are associated with more gentle slopes and well‐sorted medium–fine pebbles and granules; and transitional units have intermediate slopes and grain size. In general, all three units are planar, span the full channel width and have well‐defined boundaries. Bars and flats are more common than the transitional units and alternate downstream for distances of several hundred metres, forming sequences that are reminiscent of the riffle–pool structure commonly observed in humid‐temperate gravel‐bed rivers. A notable contrast is the absence of significant bed relief: bars lack crests and flats lack depressions. The relative lack of bed relief in bar–flat sequences is attributed to the high rate of sediment supply from the sparsely vegetated hillslopes which promotes the infilling of depressions and to the erosion of crests under conditions of intense transport. This reduction of bed relief lowers channel roughness, which in turn increases flow velocity and, therefore, the ability of the channel to transmit the large sediment loads it receives. Although our analyses pertain to a semi‐arid river system, the results have wider implications for understanding the adjustment of channel bedform to high sediment loads in other fluvial environments. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Relationships between mesoscale morphological units, stream hydraulics and Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) spawning habitat on the Lower Yuba River, California

An expert-based approach was used to identify 10 morphological unit types within a reach of the gravel bed, regulated Yuba River, California, that is heavily utilized by spawning Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha). Analysis of these units was carried out using two-dimensional hydrodynamic modeling, field-based geomorphic assessment, and detailed spawning surveying. Differently classified morphological units tended to exhibit discrete hydraulic signatures. In most cases, the Froude number adequately differentiated morphological units, but joint depth–velocity distributions proved the most effective hydraulic classification approach. Spawning activity was statistically differentiated at the mesoscale of the morphological unit. Salmon preferred lateral bar, riffle, and riffle entrance units. These units had moderately high velocity (unit median > 0.45 m s^− 1) and low depth (unit median < 0.6 m), but each exhibited a unique joint depth–velocity distribution. A large proportion of redds (79%) were associated with conditions of convective flow acceleration at riffle and riffle entrance locations. In addition to reflecting microhabitat requirements of fish, it was proposed that the hydraulic segregation of preferred from avoided or tolerated morphological units was linked to the mutual association of specific hydraulic conditions with suitable caliber sediment that promotes the provision and maintenance of spawning habitat.     

非洲大陆构造单元划分

非洲大陆地质演化历史悠久,矿产资源丰富.综合已有研究成果,对非洲大陆地质背景、构造单元划分及主要构造单元特征进行简要总结.非洲大陆跨特提斯和冈瓦纳两大构造域,大部分属于冈瓦纳构造域,主要由太古宙—古元古代结晶基底、上覆盖层和泛非构造带组成.根据非洲大陆地质背景和构造演化,在前人研究的基础上,将非洲大陆划分为2个一级构造...     

A REVIEW OF THE PALEO­HYDROLOGICAL AND GEOMORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTER OF LAKE NAM CO|SOUTH­CENTRAL TIBET

Department of Earth Sciences,Freie Universität Berlin,Malteserstraße 74－100,12249 Berlin,Germany)
The endorheic Lake Nam Co,south Eastern Tibetan Plateau,was selected to investigate the interrelation between drainage basin processes,especially post­glacial glacier decay,and lake level fluctuations. Landforms of the drainage basin are highly influenced by tectonics,superimposed by fluvial and periglacial processes,and locally by glacial and eolian processes. Thus,geomorphological features and hydrological characteristics were compiled for the lake­basin to provide an overview of the landscape character. Data show that during the Last Glacial Maximum melt water from the mountains accumulated fluvial deposits in the foreland. Concurrently,an increase of the lake level occurred which is presently shown by a cliff line all around Nam Co with its base approximately 29m above the present lake level. The Holocene decrease of the lake level is traced by beach ridges. As Nam Co is an endorheic lake post­glacial water loss has to be primarily explained by evaporation and moisture conditions. However,more detailed conclusions on quantitative and chronological patterns of both factors,melt­water input and evaporation output,still remain to be drawn.     

储层“相控”流动单元及在分析潜在剩余油分布中的应用:以长春油田C区块为例

在测井二次解释和地层精细对比的基础上,本文建立了岩芯-测井相模式并编制了单砂层平面沉积微相图。依据孔隙度、渗透率和有效厚度参数,采用H·K/φ作为主控物因数划分出了Ⅰ、Ⅱ、Ⅲ和Ⅳ共4类流动单元并以"相控"法确定了平面流动单元类型分布。流动单元Ⅰ和Ⅱ类为高效渗流单元,即水淹单元,Ⅲ和Ⅳ类流动单元为低效渗流单元,即潜在剩余油存在单元,并由此确定了河间和河道内部剩余油分布区,为油田高含水阶段利用常规资料精细分析剩余油分布提供了新思路。