Water table control on rill initiation and implications for erosional response

On sloping sandy agricultural soil sites near Toronto, Canada, summer storms adequate to generate runoff occur frequently, but rill development occurs mainly in spring when snowmelt or rainfall-induced runoff occurs above frozen subsoil. This suggests that on low and moderate slopes on these soils rill initiation is controlled primarily by hydraulic impedance close to the surface, rather than critical hydraulic conditions in runoff. Laboratory flume experiments were carried out on 10 m slopes at 1.5°, 5° and 9° with loamy sand/clay composite soil sample to test this hypothesis. Runoff with hydraulic conditions adequate for rill initiation occurred rapidly in most tests, but on 1.5° and 5° slopes little knickpoint scour or sediment transport occurred before water table development. This coincided with reduced surface soil strength, knickpoint scour and marked increase in sediment discharge, particularly on 5° slopes where increase was 20- to 30-fold. Further increase in sediment discharge occurred when water tables reached the surface. On 9° slopes runoff occurred more quickly, with higher hydraulic values. Significant rill incision and sediment discharge occurred well before water table development, and ultimately reached much higher values than on lower slopes. Results show that soil erodibility can change dramatically over short time periods during storms due to soil moisture conditions, and that the presence of a hydraulic impedance close to the surface which causes a perched water table to develop can strongly influence rill incision and sediment transport. The influence is unlikely to be marked on soils which are very erodible regardless of moisture conditions, or on extremely resistant soils. It will also be limited on very gentle or steep sites, but can be a significant factor in rill development on intermediate slopes.     

Simulation of event-based landslides and debris flows at watershed level

A coupled model has been developed to simulate, at watershed level, landslides and debris flows induced by a severe typhoon (tropical cyclone) in Taiwan. The model comprises a landslide susceptibility model to predict landslide occurrence, an empirical model to select debris-flow initiation points, and a debris flow model to simulate the transport and deposit of failed materials from the identified source areas. In raster format with a 10 m spatial resolution, the model output includes unstable cells, debris-flow initiation cells, debris-flow velocities, runout paths, and deposition zones. The model was first tested and calibrated in a small area, where the damage by landslides had been investigated and recorded. It was then applied to a watershed, and the simulation results were validated by comparing them with a landslide/debris-flow inventory map prepared from satellite images using a multiple change detection technique. Model test and validation results confirm the usefulness of the model in predicting the number and size of affected areas (landslides and runouts combined), runout path, and volume of runout deposits. It is a common practice in Taiwan to separate landslide and debris-flow inventories and to study debris flows only in select drainage basins. This study suggests that landslide and debris flow should be modeled as a sequential process for efficient watershed management.     

浙江天目山背风坡对流触发个例的对比分析

针对夏季副热带高压背景下浙北天目山附近的强对流天气个例,利用中尺度实况资料,分析了天目山对触发对流的作用。结果表明:浙江省夏季位于副热带高压边缘时,低层处于西南背景风时,在低Froude数条件下,气流经过黄山、天目山后在背风侧形成一段辐合线,在有利的热力条件配合下,容易触发对流。山地的热力强迫作用使地形上空新生了很多积云,积云分布基本与地形一致。同时,天目山背风侧出现一条积云线,其形成的原因是天目山背风侧辐合线的辐合抬升作用。背风侧辐合线尺度有几十千米,方向随环境风向转变。对流触发的位置位于这条辐合线上靠近山地的一端。这可能是由于山地热力强迫作用产生的积云移到辐合线上继续发展产生对流云,即山地的动力和热力作用共同触发了对流。     

闪电起始过程时空特征的宽带干涉仪三维观测

闪电的起始位置和起始阶段发展速度是闪电研究中的重要问题。2010年夏季,使用架设在广州市从化区的两套甚高频 (VHF) 宽带干涉仪对闪电的起始阶段放电过程进行三维定位观测。对观测数据给出的地闪和云闪的起始高度分布特征以及起始阶段击穿过程的时空发展特征进行统计和对比分析,结果表明:闪电的起始高度分布呈双峰值特征,分别在5.0 km和8.8 km有两个明显的分布峰值,符合雷暴云三极性总体电荷结构的描述。对起始阶段闪电放电发展速度的计算表明,云闪和地闪在起始阶段的前15 ms内的平均发展速度均在104~105 m·s-1量级之间;多数云闪、地闪起始阶段前15 ms内的平均发展速度表现出减速趋势,但云闪个例中起始阶段前10 ms存在减速趋势的比例更高,且其中在前15 ms一直保持减速趋势个例所占比例也大于地闪。云闪和地闪的起始阶段放电过程的发展方向有向上、向下和水平发展3种情形,可用于指示闪电始发位置的环境电场方向。     

Numerical Simulations of a Florida Sea Breeze and Its Interactions with Associated Convection: Effects of Geophysical Representation and Model Resolution

The Florida peninsula in the USA has a frequent occurrence of sea breeze(SB)thunderstorms.In this study,the numerical simulation of a Florida SB and its associated convective initiation(CI)is simulated using the mesoscale community Weather Research and Forecasting(WRF)model in one-way nested domains at different horizontal resolutions.Results are compared with observations to examine the accuracy of model-simulated SB convection and factors that influence SB CI within the simulation.It is found that the WRF model can realistically reproduce the observed SB CI.Differences are found in the timing,location,and intensity of the convective cells at different domains with various spatial resolutions.With increasing spatial resolution,the simulation improvements are manifested mainly in the timing of CI and the orientation of the convection after the sea breeze front(SBF)merger into the squall line over the peninsula.Diagnoses indicate that accurate representation of geophysical variables(e.g.,coastline and bay shape,small lakes measuring 10-30 km2),better resolved by the high resolution,play a significant role in improving the simulations.The geophysical variables,together with the high resolution,impact the location and timing of SB CI due to changes in low-level atmospheric convergence and surface sensible heating.More importantly,they enable Florida lakes(30 km2 and larger)to produce noticeable lake breezes(LBs)that collide with the SBFs to produce CI.Furthermore,they also help the model reproduce a stronger convective squall line caused by merging SBs,leading to more accurate locations of postfrontal convective systems.     

Early‐stage aeolian protodunes: Bedform development and sand transport dynamics

Early‐stage aeolian bedforms, or protodunes, are elemental in the continuum of dune development and act as essential precursors to mature dunes. Despite this, we know very little about the processes and feedback mechanisms that shape these nascent bedforms. Whilst theory and conceptual models have offered some explanation for protodune existence and development, until now, we have lacked the technical capability to measure such small bedforms in aeolian settings. Here, we employ terrestrial laser scanning to measure morphological change at the high frequency and spatial resolution required to gain new insights into protodune behaviour. On a 0.06 m high protodune, we observe vertical growth of the crest by 0.005 m in two hours. Our direct measurements of sand transport on the protodune account for such growth, with a reduction in time‐averaged sediment flux of 18% observed over the crestal region. Detailed measurements of form also establish key points of morphological change on the protodune. The position on the stoss slope where erosion switches to deposition is found at a point 0.07 m upwind of the crest. This finding supports recent models that explain vertical dune growth through an upwind shift of this switching point. Observations also show characteristic changes in the asymmetric cross‐section of the protodune. Flow‐form feedbacks result in a steepening of the lee slope and a decline in lower stoss slope steepness (by 3°), constituting a reshaping of protodune form towards more mature dune morphology. The approaches and findings applied here, (a) demonstrate an ability to quantify processes at requisite spatial and temporal scales for monitoring early‐stage dune evolution, (b) highlight the crucial role of form‐flow feedbacks in enabling early‐stage bedform growth, alluding to a fluctuation in feedbacks that require better representation in dune models, and (c) provide a new stimulus for advancing understanding of aeolian bedforms. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Hf–Nd isotope constraints on the origin of Dehshir Ophiolite,Central Iran

The peri‐Arabian ophiolite belt, from Cyprus in the west, eastward through Northwest Syria, Southeast Turkey, Northeast Iraq, Southwest Iran, and into Oman, marks a 3000 km‐long convergent margin that formed during a Late Cretaceous (ca 100 Ma) episode of subduction initiation on the north side of Neotethys. The Zagros ophiolites of Iran are part of this belt and are divided into Outer (OB) and Inner (IB) Ophiolitic Belts. We here report the first Nd–Hf isotopic study of this ophiolite belt, focusing on the Dehshir ophiolite (a part of IB). Our results confirm the Indian mid‐oceanic ridge basalt (MORB) mantle domain origin for the Dehshir mafic and felsic igneous rocks. All lavas have similar Hf isotopic compositions, but felsic dikes have significantly less‐radiogenic Nd isotopic compositions compared to mafic lavas. Elevated Th/Nb and Th/Yb in felsic samples accompany nonradiogenic Nd, suggesting the involvement of sediments or continental crust.     

盐岩地下储库围岩界面变形与破损特性分析

鉴于盐岩地下储库界面对储气（油）库稳定性和密闭性的重要影响,分别从细观和宏观方面对其变形与破损特性开展研究。细观方面：开展含界面盐岩的电镜扫描试验,分析表明：盐岩与夹层界面处颗粒结合紧密、相互嵌合,胶结良好,为储库密闭性提供有利条件。宏观方面：基于复合岩体理论构建层状盐岩交接界面的应力表达式,进而分析界面的变形及破损特性。分析表明,界面附近应力状态极为复杂,硬夹层对盐岩体具有约束锚固作用,且界面处易产生应力集中,进而诱发储库围岩体裂纹扩展直至破坏。综合细观、宏观分析表明,裂纹起裂机制和渗透通道形成是界面的细观结构特性及其应力状态共同影响的结果。研究成果为进一步分析地下盐岩储库的稳定性和密闭性提供一定参考。     

Modeling soil desiccation cracking by analytical and numerical approaches

An energy approach is proposed as a complement to the stress approach commonly considered for investigating soil desiccation cracking. The elastic strain energies before and after crack initiation are estimated by both numerical and analytical solutions. The energy released by cracking is then compared with the fracture energy to discuss crack initiation conditions. This leads to combined energy and stress conditions for crack initiation following Leguillon's theory. An approximate analytical solution is derived from a variational formulation of the porous elastic body equations. A cohesive zone model and finite element code are used to simulate crack propagation in an unsaturated porous body. This analysis shows that the energy criterion is reached before the stress criterion, and this can explain unstable crack propagation at the beginning. The approximate analytical solution allows predicting correctly the crack depth and opening in its initiation stage.     

The Continuum Voronoi Block Model for simulation of fracture process in hard rocks

In this paper, a numerical model is presented to represent the fracture process in hard rocks based on a pseudo-discontinuum method called the Continuum Voronoi Block Model (CVBM). To validate this tool, numerical models for one Brazilian test, one unconfined compression test, and multiple triaxial compression tests with different confining stress were calibrated to match laboratory test results for Creighton granite. The model proved robust and matched the following macro-properties: crack initiation (CI) stress, (CD) stress, peak strength, tensile strength, Young's Modulus, and Poisson's ratio. The calibrated model served as a basis for a sensitivity study to analyze how micro-properties influence the rock's macroscopic responses. From the sensitivity study, a calibration methodology was proposed, which shall facilitate the use of the CVBM in future works.