The effects of soil environment on the ability of surface geochemical surveys to detect underlying hydrocarbon traps

Soil surveys represent an inexpensive potential technique for preliminary hydrocarbon exploration. However, large scatter and lack of repeatability have limited their use. To determine whether a signal from a reservoir is actually detectable, a series of closely spaced soil samples was collected along a traverse line across a gas-storage reservoir. Gases were desorbed from the soil by heating and were analyzed for their content of light hydrocarbons using gas chromatography. Additional information concerning the soil and its environment was also collected at each sample site to investigate the source of scatter in the data. Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used to determine whether differences in ethane concentration from one site to another were significant and whether they could be correlated with the reservoir boundaries and/or other variables. The results do show systematic variations in ethane concentration and a strong correlation between ethane concentrations and the known reservoir boundaries. However, strong correlations were also found with some of the soil environment variables, specifically the moisture content and the land use (presumably related to the amount of disturbance). Unless these and other soil environment factors are taken into account, variability in gas content caused by them can mask any relationship with a hydrocarbon reservoir. Two other significant observations emerge from the study. First, sample spacing needs to be closer than that used in conventional surveys in order to detect boundaries and to separate the reservoir signal from surface noise. Second, the individual light hydrocarbons appear to behave differently in the soil. Methane is present in low concentrations despite its high concentration in the reservoir gas. Ethane is more abundant and was chosen for use in the analysis. Propane and butane have very low concentrations, reflecting their low concentrations in the natural gas in the reservoir. However, pentane, though dilute in natural gas, is very abundant in the soil. We believe that pentane is retained because soil temperatures are near its liquidus, particularly during cold weather. This makes pentane potentially unreliable as an indicator of underlying gas flux.     

南海ODP1146站位烃类气体地球化学特征及其意义

ODP1146站位位于东沙群岛南部的尖峰北小型裂谷盆地内。系统的顶空气和酸解烃分析结果表明,在0～250m（海底合成深度）区间的烃类气体含量较低且变化不大,但在390～590m特别是在550～590m区间存在较明显的高烃异常。这一高烃异常可能与天然气水合物有关,是邻区天然气水合物分解后释放出的高烃流体沿层间裂隙或断层侧向迁移的结果。甲烷碳同位素的测定结果显示其δ^13C1值为-24.0‰～-37.8‰（PDB标准）,结合烃类气体的分子比值C1／（C2＋C3）,1146站位的烃类气体应是热解气或是以热解气为主的混合气,但在中上部可能存在部分微生物气。     

陆地生态系统温室气体排放（吸收）测量方法简评

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地球去气作用

利用地质学、天文学、地球物理学、古生物学资料进行约束,对地球的去气作用进行研究发现：太阳系的部分冷物质,通过吸积作用形成早期地球.在碰撞动能转变的热能作用下,造成了早期地球的表面熔融.在熔融状态的高温高压作用下,构成地球表面物质的结晶水排出地表进入原始大气;在高温高压下分解的碳酸盐、硫酸盐、卤化物等产生的二氧化碳、硫化氢、二氧化硫、氯化氢、氟化氢等气体进入原始大气,和水蒸汽一道共同组成原始大气.当地球内部在重力势能和放射能的作用下继续熔融时,地球表面固化为原始岩石圈.后来,地球除表面岩石圈外,整个地球完全熔融.地球内部物质熔融形成的水和二氧化碳等气体,被岩石圈圈闭.只有当冰川形成和消融,引起造海和造陆作用,导致火山喷发和地震时,这些气体才可能排出地表.这些气体的排出,受地球内部的熔融状态、冰川形成的位置（是在海洋或是在陆地）、生物的演化、太阳光的强度等因素的综合影响.     

A quantitative comparison and analysis on the assessment indicators of greenhouse gases emission

Anthropogenic greenhouse gases (GHG) emission and related global warming issues have been the focus of international communities for some time. The international communities have reached a consensus to reduce anthropogenic GHG emissions and restrain global warming. The quantitative assessment of anthropogenic GHG emissions is the scientific basis to find out the status of global GHG emission, identify the commitments of each country, and arrange the international efforts of GHG emission reduction. Currently the main assessment indicators for GHG emission include national indicator, per capita indicator, per GDP indicator, and international trade indicator etc. The introduction to the above indicators is put forward and their merits and demerits are analyzed. Based on the GHG emission data from the World Resource Institute (WRI), the US Energy Information Administration (EIA), and the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center (CDIAC), the results of each indictor are calculated for the world, for the eight G8 industrialized countries (USA, UK, Canada, Japan, Germany, France, Italy and Russia), and the five major developing countries including China, Brazil, India, South Africa and Mexico. The paper points out that all these indicators have some limitations. The Indicator of Industrialized Accumulative Emission per Capita (IAEC) is put forward as the equitable indicator to evaluate the industrialized historical accumulative emission per capita of every country. IAEC indicator can reflect the economic achievement of GHG emission enjoyed by the current generations in every country and their commitments. The analysis of IAEC indicates that the historical accumulative emission per capita in industrialized countries such as UK and USA were typically higher than those of the world average and the developing countries. Emission indicator per capita per GDP, consumptive emission indicator and survival emission indicator are also put forward and discussed in the paper.     

The Agulhas Plateau: structure and evolution of a Large Igneous Province

Large Igneous Provinces (LIP) are of great interest due to their role in crustal generation, magmatic processes and environmental impact. The Agulhas Plateau in the southwest Indian Ocean off South Africa has played a controversial role in this discussion due to unclear evidence for its continental or oceanic crustal affinity. With new geophysical data from seismic refraction and reflection profiling, we are able to present improved evidence for its crustal structure and composition. The velocity–depth model reveals a mean crustal thickness of 20 km with a maximum of 24 km, where three major units can be identified in the crust. In our seismic reflection records, evidence for volcanic flows on the Agulhas Plateau can be observed. The middle crust is thickened by magmatic intrusions. The up to 10 km thick lower crustal body is characterized by high seismic velocities of 7.0–7.6 km s⁻¹. The velocity–depth distribution suggests that the plateau consists of overthickened oceanic crust similar to other oceanic LIPs such as the Ontong-Java Plateau or the northern Kerguelen Plateau. The total volume of the Agulhas Plateau was estimated to be 4 × 10⁶ km³ of which about 10 per cent consists of extruded igneous material. We use this information to obtain a first estimate on carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide emission caused by degassing from this material. The Agulhas Plateau was formed as part of a larger LIP consisting of the Agulhas Plateau itself, Northeast Georgia Rise and Maud Rise. The formation time of this LIP can be estimated between 100 and 94 (± 5) Ma.     

Unconventional Natural Gas Accumulations in Stacked Deposits:A Discussion of Upper Paleozoic Coal-Bearing Strata in the East Margin of the Ordos Basin,China

The Upper Paleozoic(Carboniferous to Permian) succession in the east margin of the Ordos Basin in the North China Craton has a potential to contain significant hydrocarbon resources, though attention have been mainly attracted for its successful development of coalbed methane(CBM). To improve the previous resource estimates and evaluate the hydrocarbon play possibilities, this study incorporated new discoveries of hydrocarbon units and their stratigraphic relation with source rocks, hydrocarbon migration and trapping configurations. Continuous hydrocarbon accumulation units were identified within the Upper Paleozoic, including the Taiyuan, Shanxi and Xiashihezi formations with great tight gas potential, and the Taiyuan and Shanxi formations also containing shale gas and CBM. Different strata combinations are identified with coal deposition and favour for continuous gas accumulations, including the tidal flat, deltaic and fluvial systems distributed in most of the study areas. Methane was not only generated from the thick coal seams in the Taiyuan and Shanxi formations, but also from shale and dark mudstones. The coal, shale and tight sandstones are proved of remarkable gas content and hydrocarbon indications, and the gas saturation of tight sandstones decreases upward. The stacked deposit combinations vary isochronally in different areas, while the coal seams were developed stably showing good gas sources. Two key stages control the hydrocarbon enrichment, the continuous subsidence from coal forming to Late Triassic and the anomalous paleo-geothermal event happened in Early Cretaceous, as indicated by the fluid inclusions evidence. Extensive areas show good hydrocarbon development potential presently, and more works should be focused on the evaluation and selection of good reservoir combinations.     

Response of mode water and Subtropical Countercurrent to greenhouse gas and aerosol forcing in the North Pacific

The response of the North Pacific Subtropical Mode Water and Subtropical Countercurrent (STCC) to changes in greenhouse gas (GHG) and aerosol is investigated based on the 20th-century historical and single-forcing simulations with the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory Climate Model version 3 (GFDL CM3). The aerosol effect causes sea surface temperature (SST) to decrease in the mid-latitude North Pacific, especially in the Kuroshio Extension region, during the past five decades (1950–2005), and this cooling effect exceeds the warming effect by the GHG increase. The STCC response to the GHG and aerosol forcing are opposite. In the GHG (aerosol) forcing run, the STCC decelerates (accelerates) due to the decreased (increased) mode waters in the North Pacific, resulting from a weaker (stronger) front in the mixed layer depth and decreased (increased) subduction in the mode water formation region. The aerosol effect on the SST, mode waters and STCC more than offsets the GHG effect. The response of SST in a zonal band around 40°N and the STCC to the combined forcing in the historical simulation is similar to the response to the aerosol forcing.     

疏勒河上游多年冻土区植物生长季主要温室气体排放观测

选取青藏高原东北部疏勒河上游多年冻土区的高寒草甸样地为研究对象, 对2011年植物生长季(6-10月)主要温室气体(CO₂、 CH₄CH₄和CO₂)的排放进行了观测. 结果显示: 疏勒河上游多年冻土区高寒草甸地表CO₂、 CH₄和N₂O排放速率范围分别为7.58~418.60 mg·m^-2·h^-1, -0.20~0.14 mg·m^-2·h^-1和-27.22~39.98 μg·m^-2·h^-1. 0~10 cm土壤温度、 含水量和盐分与CO₂和CH₄排放速率显著相关, 但与N₂O排放速率无显著相关. 日均排放速率显示, CO₂和N₂O在整个观测期均表现为排放; CH₄在植物返青期和生长旺盛期表现为排放, 在枯黄期伴随表层土壤发生日冻融循环时为吸收. 从9月30日12:00-10月6日14:40, 表层0~10 cm土壤经历了3次日冻融循环, CO₂和N₂O日均排放速率分别由冻融前的60.73 mg·m^-2·h^-1和9.91 μg·m^-2·h^-1提高到122.33 mg·m^-2·h^-1和11.70 μg·m^-2·h^-1. 土壤温度、 含水量和盐分是影响CO₂和CH₄排放的重要因子, 表层土壤冻融交替作用可提高地表CO₂和N₂O的排放速率.