Late quaternary speleogenesis and landscape evolution in the northern Apennine evaporite areas

Gypsum beds host the majority of the caves in the north‐eastern flank of the Apennines, in the Emilia Romagna region (Italy). More than six hundred of these caves have been surveyed, including the longest known epigenic gypsum cave systems in the world (Spipola‐Acquafredda, ~11 km). Although this area has been intensively studied from a geological point of view, the age of the caves has never been investigated in detail. The rapid dissolution of gypsum and uplift history of the area have led to the long‐held view that speleogenesis commenced only during the last 130 000 years. Epigenic caves only form when the surface drainage system efficiently conveys water into the underground. In the study area, this was achieved after the dismantling of most of the impervious sediments covering the gypsum and the development of protovalleys and sinkholes. The time necessary for these processes can by constrained by understanding when caves were first formed. The minimum age of karst voids can be indirectly estimated by dating the infilling sediments. U–Th dating of carbonate speleothems growing in gypsum caves has been applied to 20 samples from 14 different caves from the Spipola‐Acquafredda, Monte Tondo‐Re Tiberio, Stella‐Rio Basino, Monte Mauro, and Castelnuovo systems. The results show that: (i) caves have been forming since at least ~600 kyr ago; (ii) the peak of speleogenesis was reached during relatively cold climate stages, when rivers formed terraces at the surface and aggradation caused paragenesis in the stable cave levels; (iii) ~200 000 years were necessary for the dismantling of most of the sediments covering the karstifiable gypsum and the development of a surface mature drainage network. Besides providing a significant contribution to the understanding of evaporite karst evolution in the Apennines, this study refines our knowledge on the timescale of geomorphological processes in a region affected by rapid uplifting. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

昌都—兰坪—呵叻成盐带白垩纪成盐成钾过程

以昌都—兰坪—思茅盆地及呵叻盆地含盐带盐类沉积为研究对象,在分析总结前人研究成果的基础上,通过系统的大地构造学、矿床学、地球化学等研究方法,总结和研究了该区含钾蒸发岩矿床的矿床特征,提出了新的成矿模式。研究表明,兰坪—思茅盆地和呵叻盆地的含钾蒸发岩矿床为"海源陆相"成因,即在陆相环境下与海水的变异有关。该矿床缺失正常海水蒸发浓缩而形成的硫酸盐沉积,同时,矿床中少量菱镁矿等自生矿物的出现无法用正常海水蒸发理论解释。矿床中少量溢晶石等矿物的出现预示着该矿床富钙。兰坪—思茅盆地内广泛发育了白垩纪蒸发岩系(勐野井组或云龙组),江城地区甚至沉积了小型钾盐矿床。同位素和微量元素的研究表明,该区蒸发岩矿床为海相成因,Rb和Br的含量变化指示海水从北部兰坪侵入到呵叻。昌都及兰坪地区的白垩纪石膏硫、锶同位素研究表明,该区大套的硫酸盐沉积为海相成因,物源研究成果揭示思茅盆地的物源可能来自东羌塘地区,预示着昌都地区的硫酸盐沉积跟兰坪—思茅盆地的蒸发岩沉积具有同源性。通过上述研究,提出了多级盆地海水迁移变质成盐成钾模式。     

Kaolinite deposition from moving suspensions: The roles of flocculation,salinity, suspended sediment concentration and flow velocity/bed shear

Understanding how mud moves and deposits is essential for conceptualizing the dynamic nature of surface environments and their ancient counterparts. Experimental study has largely been pursued by civil engineers, using kaolinite as an active ingredient. Yet, applying their data to the physical comprehension of mudstone sedimentology is hampered by multiple flume configurations between labs, and data sets tailored to specific engineering needs. The need for a better grasp of underlying processes is acute, given recent flume studies that show that moving suspensions form large bedload floccules, migrating floccule ripples and bed accretion under currents capable of moving sand grains. To advance mudstone sedimentology, integrated study of suspended sediment concentration, salinity and bed shear stress on the deposition of floccules is crucial. Described here is a set of tightly controlled experiments that explored suspended sediment concentrations from 70 to 900 mg/l, freshwater, brackish and marine salinities, flow velocities in the 5 to 50 cm/s range (equivalent to 0.01 to 0.58 Pa bed shear), measured the size of in-flow and bedload floccules, and the critical velocity of sedimentation that marks the onset of sustained bedload accumulation. The critical velocity of sedimentation of kaolinite clays is in the 26 to 28 cm/s flow velocity range (0.22 to 0.25 Pa), appears insensitive to a wide range of suspended sediment concentrations and salinities, and coincides with the formation of sand-size bedload floccules. Further decrease of flow velocity/bed shear stress is accompanied by a steady increase in the size of bedload floccules. Large bedload floccules appear to form in the high-shear basal part of the flow, a phenomenon requiring further investigation. Better understanding of the mechanisms that facilitate mud deposition from moving suspensions is critical for more realistic assessments of the depositional conditions of mud and mudstones, as well as for refining predictive models for the flux of fine-grained sediments across the Earth's surface.     

北羌塘坳陷中侏罗统夏里组蒸发岩硫同位素特征及其钾盐成矿意义

羌塘盆地是一个资源丰富的含蒸发岩盆地。为进一步探讨盆地内蒸发岩原始物源、沉积环境以及钾盐资源的成矿潜力,文章分析了北羌塘坳陷QY-1井37件中侏罗统夏里组硬石膏岩样品的硫同位素特征。结果表明：(1) QY-1井硬石膏岩的硫同位素值介于11.76‰～15.96‰,主峰值区间为15.0‰～16.0‰,平均值为15.16‰,与中侏罗世海水相比偏小,相对较低的硫同位素值指示存在陆源淡水补给蒸发盆地;(2)硫同位素值分布范围非常集中,98%的样品硫同位素值介于14.0‰～16.0‰。稳定的硫同位素值指示硬石膏沉积期及成岩后未遭受微生物的改造,沉积和成岩环境的氧化还原电位较高;(3)北羌塘坳陷地表盐泉水具有与夏里组硬石膏岩相一致的硫同位素特征,这表明盐泉水在地下运移时可能溶解了地层中的石膏沉积。再结合沉积学、矿物学、古地磁学等研究成果,笔者综合判断北羌塘坳陷具有良好的钾盐成矿条件和远景。     

老挝中部沙湾拿吉盆地晚白垩世钾盐蒸发岩:非海相输入的地球化学证据

老挝中部沙湾拿吉盆地上白垩统农波组钾盐蒸发岩是研究区域成矿卤水演化的重要材料。盐类矿物中微量元素的含量及其变化特征共同揭示了成盐物质应该主要来自海水,但深部水的补给也具有重要作用。研究结果表明,所谓的含盐系"基底"硬石膏只是水-岩作用下下盐层底部溶滤后的残余物。光卤石中偏负的δD、δ18O值及Br的海相特征则指示了该矿物是浓缩海水混合大气水后蒸发的产物,陆相水对成矿卤水演化过程产生了一定影响。农波组下盐层蒸发岩可分为3个不同的演化阶段。(1)海相输入阶段:海水进入成盐盆地,石盐大量沉积,海侵作用早期具有明显的波动性而后期较稳定;该阶段末期发生了海相输入向陆相输入的转变,陆相输入在水文封闭和收缩的成盐盆地中逐渐占据主导地位,卤水组分因深部水输入而发生变化。(2)非海相输入及混合卤水蒸发阶段:混合卤水蒸发形成钾盐,光卤石沉积过程中发生了一次轻微的卤水淡化事件。(3)沉积后改造阶段:已沉积的光卤石岩在陆相水淋滤作用下转变为钾石盐岩,钾石盐是光卤石被交代后的次生矿物。系统的微量元素和氢氧同位素分析表明,非海相输入在成矿卤水演化及沉积后的改造过程中扮演了重要角色。     

塔里木盆地和田1井中寒武统膏岩层段发现原生白云石

岩石学与地球化学研究表明,塔里木盆地和田1井中寒武统膏岩层中白云石为原生白云石。岩石学特征上,白云石晶体微小,属隐晶—微晶(5μm),呈他形—次圆形,并且不含灰质前驱物。白云石与自生石膏有密切联系,根据其与石膏的关系及岩石学特征,可以将其分为两类:A类原生白云石,包裹在石膏内,晶体较大,一般大于3μm;B类原生白云石,石膏分散在其中,具有极好的长柱状晶形,白云石晶体较小,一般小于3μm。地球化学特征上,两类白云石差别也较明显。A类白云石具有高的n(Mg)/n(Ca)比,平均为0.96,接近化学计量白云石。Na_2O,Sr O,Fe O,Mn O平均含量分别为160μg/g,270μg/g,2250μg/g,120μg/g。δ~(13)C(PDB)与δ~(18)O(SMOW)平均值分别为0.3‰,24.6‰;与A类原生白云石相比,B类原生白云石n(Mg)/n(Ca)比较低,平均值为0.90。具有较高的Na_2O,Fe O,Mn O含量与稍低的Sr O含量,平均值分别为290μg/g,2540μg/g,200μg/g,200μg/g。δ~(13)C(PDB)与δ~(18)O(SMOW)变化不大,δ~(13)C稍低,平均值为-0.3‰,δ~(18)O值较高,平均值为25.2‰。研究表明,文中白云石为原生沉淀,而非交代前驱物灰岩形成,Mg的来源为强烈蒸发形成的高盐度咸水。微生物可能参与了白云石沉淀过程。     

内陆湖盆"深水成盐"形成条件和识别标志:以东濮凹陷与现代盐湖为例

位于我国东部的许多新生代盆地,在地质历史时期发育了巨厚的岩盐沉积。尽管这些盆地的成盐模式研究已经历了40多年,但由于缺乏“深水成盐”的现代沉积模式,到底是“深盆-深水”还是“深盆-浅水”成盐,一直难以定论。为了理解“深水成盐”的控制因素,很多现代盐湖开展了水文学和水化学调查,然而这些湖盆的矿物组合各不相同,“深水成盐”的形成条件和控制因素尚不清楚。本文对死海、佛瑞湖等“深水成盐”的现代盐湖以及我国东濮凹陷沙三段的成盐特征进行了解剖,从盐度、水深、湖平面波动以及卤水分层等角度探讨了“深水成盐”的形成条件,对比分析了“深水成盐”的相对位置以及沉积物特征,总结了“深水成盐”的识别标志。研究表明,盐岩层系在岩心和测井资料上显示出多尺度的旋回性。“深水成盐”为水深较大的洼陷中心成盐,与盆缘的“浅水成盐”同盆共存。沉积相对岩盐层系的结构和组成有明显的控制作用,其中洼陷带的“深水成盐”,主要在洼陷带的卤水-湖底沉积物界面附近,析出和增生粗晶的盐类矿物,常与富含有机质和黄铁矿的暗色泥岩共存;而湖滨附近的“浅水成盐”,单层厚度薄,结晶粒度细小,通常含有较多的陆源碎屑。死海为代表的现代盐湖以及东濮凹陷等古代成盐盆地的沉积特征表明,“深水成盐”发生于湖平面的下降期,而且卤水剖面的厚度对蒸发岩的形成分布有明显的控制作用,同时具有“深水”和“深盆”特征的内陆盐湖更容易形成单层厚度大、横向稳定的岩盐沉积。本研究有助于改变人们以往对内陆湖盆成盐机理的认知,尤其是现代盐湖的卤水分层析盐特征,对解读地质历史中的其他成盐事件具有重要启示。基于现代沉积实例的“深水成盐”识别标志,可以为古代岩盐沉积模式的建立提供限定条件。     

Interactions of Copper, Evaporite, and Organic Matter and Genesis of Sandstone-Hosted Copper Deposits in the Chuxiong Basin, Yunnan Province

Studies on organic geochemistry indicate that the origin, type and maturity of organic matter are different among coal-bearing, copper-bearing and evaporite formations in the Mesozoic continental Chuxiong Basin, Yunnan, China. A mechanism has been proposed that (1) during the diagenetic mineralization stage the short-chain organic acids dervied from kerogen played an important role in remobilizing copper from source beds, while oils acted as important carrier of copper, and that (2) during the transformation or remolding mineralization stage, meteoric water leached the evaporite layers and formed downward-percolating oxidizing SO42-rich fluids; meanwhile, the copper-bearing fluids migrating upwards along growth faults from the basement was contaminated by the coal-bearing series on the way and formed reducing organic-rich fluids; oxidation-reduction occurred and sulfides formed when the two kinds of fluids met within sandstones.     

贵州及邻区与蒸发岩和油气有关的汞矿成因探讨

汞和烃类在空间上和成因上有着密切的关系。汞和一部分烃类最初是呈气态沿深断裂从上地幔迁移而来；因沉积过程中，有机烃类与地幔烃类，陆源汞与幔源汞在细粒级沉积物中初步富集并形成生油岩，亦即汞的矿源层；在成岩后生阶段，汞和烃类可通过黑卤同时运移，汞也可通过黄卤单独运移；燕山运动阶段，汞和烃类进行再分配、迁移、聚集，形成汞矿床和油气藏。在汞矿成矿过程中，黑卤和黄卤于不同地质背景的区域，都发挥着重要作用。     

Neogene evaporites in desert volcanic environments: Atacama Desert, northern Chile

The Upper Miocene and Pliocene evaporite deposits of the Atacama Desert of northern Chile (Hilaricos and Soledad Formations) are among the few non‐marine evaporites in which aridity not only formed the deposits, but has also preserved them almost unaltered under near‐surface conditions. These deposits are largely composed of displacive Ca sulphate and halite together with minor amounts of glauberite, thenardite and polyhalite. However, at the base and top of these deposits, there are also beds of gypsum crystal pseudomorphs that originally formed as free‐growth forms within shallow brine bodies, rather than as displacive sediments. The halite is present as interstitial cement, displacive cubes and shallow‐water, bottom‐growth chevron crusts. Most of the calcium sulphate is presently anhydrite, pseudomorphous after gypsum, that was the primary depositional sulphate mineral. The secondary anhydrite formed under early diagenetic conditions after slight burial (some metres) resulting from the effect of strongly evolved pore brines. The anhydrite has been preserved without rehydration during late diagenetic and exhumation stages on account of the arid environment of the Atacama Desert. Both the Hilaricos and the Soledad Formations contain geochemical markers indicating that these Neogene evaporites had a largely non‐marine origin. Bromine content in the halite is very low (few p.p.m.), indicating neither a sedimentological relation with sea water nor the likelihood of direct recycling of prior marine halites. Moreover, the δ³⁴S of sulphates (+4·5‰ to +9‰) also reflects a non‐marine origin, with a strong volcanic influence, although some recycling of Mesozoic marine sulphates cannot be ruled out. δ³⁴S of dissolved sulphate from hot springs and streams in the area commonly displays positive values (+2‰ to +10‰). Leaching of oxidized sulphur and chlorine compounds from volcanoes and epithermal ore bodies, very common in the associated drainage areas, have been the main contribution to the accumulation of evaporites. The sedimentary and diagenetic evolution of the Hilaricos and Soledad evaporites (based on lithofacies analysis) provides information about the palaeohydrological conditions in the Central Depression of northern Chile during the Neogene. In addition, the diagenesis and exhumation history of these evaporites confirms the persistence of strongly arid conditions from Late Miocene until the present. A final phase of tectonism took place permitting the internal drainage to change and open to the sea, resulting in dissolution and removal of a significant portion of these deposits. Despite the extensive dissolution, the remaining evaporites have undergone little late exhumational hydration.