论相对点位精度的合理评定

按现行方法求得的相对点位精度由于未顾及起始数据误差的影响 ,且非实际所需评定的相对点位精度 ,因此并不客观、可靠。本文所提出的协方差基准的概念 ,用来定义相对点位精度和绝对点位精度有其客观性和实用性 ,协方差基准作为控制网点精度的参考基准 ,并不重合于网点坐标的参考基准—坐标基准 ,而可按应用的需要 ,方便地进行协方差基准转换。本文提出了合理评定相对点位精度的新方法 ,并用高精度工程控制网的实测数据进行了分析验证     

GPS网平差观测量选取的理论分析

由多台GPS接收机在不同时段进行静态观测而组成的观测网形,当采用高精度的科研软件与常用商用软件解算基线时,其基线向量的方差阵不同,前者的方差阵结构是完全的、严密的。同时,在进行GPS网平差时,选取GPS基线的方式及数量的不同,构造的网形也就不同,采用不同的数学模型其得到的平差结果和精度指标也不相同。文章先从理论上进行分析,后用示例进行比较论证。     

Monitoring volcanic hazard using eddy covariance at Solfatara volcano, Naples, Italy

An eddy covariance (EC) station was deployed at Solfatara crater, Italy, June 8–25, 2001 to assess if EC could reliably monitor CO₂ fluxes continuously at this site. Deployment at six different locations within the crater allowed areas of focused gas venting to be variably included in the measured flux. Turbulent (EC) fluxes calculated in 30-min averages varied between 950 and 4460 g CO₂ m⁻² d⁻¹; the highest measurements were made downwind of degassing pools. Comparing turbulent fluxes with chamber measurements of surface fluxes using footprint models in diffuse degassing regions yielded an average difference of 0% (±4%), indicating that EC measurements are representative of surface fluxes at this volcanic site. Similar comparisons made downwind of degassing pools yielded emission rates from 12 to 27 t CO₂ d⁻¹ for these features. Reliable EC measurements (i.e. measurements with sufficient and stationary turbulence) were obtained primarily during daytime hours (08:00 and 20:00 local time) when the wind speed exceeded 2 m s⁻¹. Daily average EC fluxes varied by ±50% and variations were likely correlated to changes in atmospheric pressure. Variations in CO₂ emissions due to volcanic processes at depth would have to be on the same order of magnitude as the measured diurnal variability in order to be useful in predicting volcanic hazard. First-order models of magma emplacement suggest that emissions could exceed this rate for reasonable assumptions of magma movement. EC therefore provides a useful method of monitoring volcanic hazard at Solfatara. Further, EC can monitor significantly larger areas than can be monitored by previous methods.     

Numerical investigation of local scour at two adjacent cylinders

Local scour around cylinders in a side-by-side or tandem arrangement under clear-water conditions is investigated numerically. Large eddy simulations with a Smagorinsky subgrid model are combined with a ghost-cell immersed boundary method, and details of the bed scouring are realized with sophisticated sediment and morphodynamic models. The scour patterns and depths in the two-cylinder cases are shown to be significantly influenced by the cylinder spacing. The features of the scour evolution, depth, and flow fields for a range of cylinder spacings are discussed. The maximum scour depth in the side-by-side cylinder cases increases as the distance between the cylinders decreases, whereas in the tandem cases, it tends to initially increase with increasing distance between the cylinders, after which it gradually decreases beyond the peak point. The maximum scour depths and trends computed using the present model show good agreement with the measured data in the literature.     

The generation of phytoplankton patchiness by mesoscale current patterns

 Elken et al. (1994) suggested that phytoplankton patchiness can be generated by mesoscale eddies in light-limited, nutrient-replete environments. This hypothesis is explored using two ecological models of different physical complexity. The model results support the idea that the coupling of mesoscale eddy circulation and phytoplankton growth leads to differential growth rates and thus generates variability in phytoplankton distributions. The specific circulation of a cyclonic eddy isolates a phytoplankton population in its core. Due to the reduced vertical mixing, a higher growth rate is supported in the core, and phytoplankton concentrations increase compared to the surrounding environment. A one-dimensional model is used to explore the hypothesis in general and to perform sensitivity studies. A more realistic simulation uses a coupled three- dimensional model for the western Baltic Sea. Starting from vertically and horizontally homogeneous distributions for nutrients and plankton, the models generate patchiness due to the proposed mechanism. The described mechanism may apply for other mesoscale variable environments during light-limited growth periods as well, e.g., the frontal region of the Southern Ocean. Received: 31 March 2001 / Accepted: 31 August 2001     

Simulation of normal distributed smooth fields by Karhunen-Loéve expansion in combination with kriging

Simulation of multigaussian stochastic fields can be made after a Karhunen-Loéve expansion of a given covariance function. This method is also called simulation by Empirical Orthogonal Functions. The simulations are made by drawing stochastic coefficients from a random generator. These numbers are multiplied with eigenfunctions and eigenvalues derived from the predefined covariance model. The number of eigenfunctions necessary to reproduce the stochastic process within a predefined variance error, turns out to be a cardinal question. Some ordinary analytical covariance functions are used to evaluate how quickly the series of eigenfunctions can be truncated. This analysis demonstrates extremely quick convergence to 99.5% of total variance for the 2nd order exponential (‘gaussian’) covariance function, while the opposite is true for the 1st order exponential covariance function. Due to these convergence characteristics, the Karhunen-Loéve method is most suitable for simulating smooth fields with ‘gaussian’ shaped covariance functions. Practical applications of Karhunen-Loéve simulations can be improved by spatial interpolation of the eigenfunctions. In this paper, we suggest interpolation by kriging and limits for reproduction of the predefined covariance functions are evaluated.     

The impacts of mountain pine beetle disturbance on the energy balance of snow during the melt period

Mountain snowpacks provide most of the annual discharge of western US rivers, but the future of water resources in the western USA is tenuous, as climatic changes have resulted in earlier spring melts that have exacerbated summer droughts. Compounding changes to the physical environment are biotic disturbances including that of the mountain pine beetle (MPB), which has decimated millions of acres of western North American forests. At the watershed scale, MPB disturbance increases the peak hydrograph, and at the stand scale, the ‘grey’ phase of MPB canopy disturbance decreases canopy snow interception, increases snow albedo, increases net shortwave radiation, and decreases net longwave radiation versus the ‘red’ phase. Fewer studies have been conducted on the red phase of MPB disturbance and in the mixed coniferous stands that may follow MPB‐damaged forests. We measured the energy balance of four snowpacks representing different stages of MPB damage, management, and recovery: a lodgepole pine stand, an MPB‐infested stand in the red phase, a mixed coniferous stand (representing one successional trajectory), and a clear‐cut (representing reactive management) in the Tenderfoot Creek Experimental Forest in Montana, USA. Net longwave radiation was lower in the MPB‐infested stand despite higher basal area and plant area index of the other forests, suggesting that the desiccated needles serve as a less effective thermal buffer against longwave radiative losses. Eddy covariance observations of sensible and latent heat flux indicate that they are of similar but opposite magnitude, on the order of 20 MJ m^?2 during the melt period. Further analyses reveal that net turbulent energy fluxes were near zero because of the temperature and atmospheric vapour pressure encountered during the melt period. Future research should place snow science in the context of forest succession and management and address important uncertainties regarding the timing and magnitude of needlefall events. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A model of secondary upwelling over the shelf break

Motivated by our puzzling high-resolution radar observations of surface vortices in the nearly rectangular Gulf of Eilat/Aqaba, northern Red Sea, we propose and explore the driven cavity approach to this geophysical phenomenon. While the lid-driven cavity has long been considered a benchmark problem in computational fluid dynamics, its oceanographic context has not been considered. Despite the additional effects of rotation and stratification, our modeling demonstrates that when the fluid within a cavity geometrically similar to the Gulf of Eilat is driven by the external current, an interior vortex can develop as in our observations. Furthermore, the Eilat vortices appear only under relatively calm conditions, adding evidence to the intriguing possibility of their simple shear-driven origin.     

L形和U形三维钝体结构绕流的数值模拟研究

采用大涡模型对L形和U形三维钝体建筑物的绕流特性和风压分布特性进行数值研究。考虑平均和脉动速度入口边界,在雷诺数为1.5×10~5～7×10~5条件下,对2种钝体的9种分析工况进行瞬态动力分析,并将计算结果与已有研究进行对比。研究表明,钝体绕流对周围流场影响的强弱程度依次为尾流区、屋顶区、来流区,影响大小随着流场与钝体之间距离、钝体建筑高宽比、离地高度的增大而减小,且对来流区0.25H、屋顶上部0.4H、左右两侧0.5H、尾流区2.0H范围内流场的影响最大;钝体迎风面风压分布比较均匀,而侧面、背面和顶面受绕流涡旋的影响较大,平均风压分布较为复杂,并与脉动风压分布具有类似的变化趋势。研究结果对结构抗风设计与建筑风环境设计具有一定的参考价值。     

The eastward subtropical countercurrent on isopycnal surface in the western North Pacific

The classic Sverdrup theory suggests that the water movement in the central subtropical gyre of North Pa-cific be slowly westward or southwestward.In the late sixties of the20th century,the existence of a peculiar eastward narrow flow between20°N and25°N in spring was theoretically predicted.It was named the Subtropical Countercurrent(STCC),although direct observational evidences were not yet sufficient to con-firm whether or not such eastward flow between20°N and25°N was a persistent…