Magma evolution and the formation of porphyry Cu–Au ore fluids: evidence from silicate and sulfide melt inclusions

Silicate and sulfide melt inclusions from the andesitic Farallón Negro Volcanic Complex in NW Argentina were analyzed by laser ablation ICPMS to track the behavior of Cu and Au during magma evolution, and to identify the processes in the source of fluids responsible for porphyry-Cu-Au mineralization at the 600 Mt Bajo de la Alumbrera deposit. The combination of silicate and sulfide melt inclusion data with previously published geological and geochemical information indicates that the source of ore metals and water was a mantle-derived mafic magma that contained approximately 6 wt.% H₂O and 200 ppm Cu. This magma and a rhyodacitic magma mixed in an upper-crustal magma chamber, feeding the volcanic systems and associated subvolcanic intrusions over 2.6 million years. Generation of the ore fluid from this magma occurred towards the end of this protracted evolution and probably involved six important steps: (1) Generation of a sulfide melt upon magma mixing in some parts of the magma chamber. (2) Partitioning of Cu and Au into the sulfide melt (enrichment factor of 10,000 for Cu) leading to Cu and Au concentrations of several wt.% or ppm, respectively. (3) A change in the tectonic regime from local extension to compression at the end of protracted volcanism. (4) Intrusion of a dacitic magma stock from the upper part of the layered magma chamber. (5) Volatile exsolution and resorption of the sulfide melt from the lower and more mafic parts of the magma chamber, generating a fluid with a Cu/Au ratio equal to that of the precursor sulfide. (6) Focused fluid transport and precipitation of the two metals in the porphyry, yielding an ore body containing Au and Cu in the proportions dictated by the magmatic fluid source. The Cu/S ratio in the sulfide melt inclusions requires that approximately 4,000 ppm sulfur is extracted from the andesitic magma upon mixing. This exceeds the solubility of sulfide or sulfate in either of the silicate melts and implies an additional source for S. The extra sulfur could be added in the form of anhydrite phenocrysts present in the rhyodacitic magma. It appears, thus, that unusually sulfur-rich, not Cu-rich magmas are the key to the formation of porphyry-type ore deposits. Our observations imply that dacitic intrusions hosting the porphyry–Cu–Au mineralization are not representative of the magma from which the ore-fluid exsolved. The source of the ore fluid is the underlying more mafic magma, and unaltered andesitic dikes emplaced immediately after ore formation are more likely to represent the magma from which the fluids were generated. At Alumbrera, these andesitic dikes carry relicts of the sulfide melt as inclusions in amphibole. Sulfide inclusions in similar dykes of other, less explored magmatic complexes may be used to predict the Au/Cu ratio of potential ore-forming fluids and the expected metal ratio in any undiscovered porphyry deposit.Editorial handling: B. Lehmann     

陕南羊坪湾金矿床黄铁矿标型特征研究

羊坪湾金矿位于陕西石泉-汉阴北部金矿带东部,前人曾在该地区开展过大量勘探和综合研究,并取得一定的认识成果（李会民等,1997;李福让等,2009;任小华等,2015）。羊坪湾金矿床中载金矿物主要为黄铁矿,其次为磁黄铁矿,此外还有少量褐铁矿、石英等。本次重点针对矿区内载金黄铁矿进行电子探针测试分析,探讨其同金成之间关系。     

胶东型金矿：与壳源重熔层状花岗岩和壳幔混合花岗闪长岩有关的金矿

胶东型金矿是与壳源重熔形成的层状岩浆活动和壳幔混合岩浆活动有关的金矿床,由于成矿时所处构造位置和容矿构造不同而表现为不同的类型,涵盖破碎带蚀变岩型、石英脉型等胶东地区所有金矿床类型。玲珑花岗岩是壳源物质长期处于高温高压下且熔融形成的多物质来源层状岩体,其析出的高温碱性热液溶解金等成矿物质形成初始含矿热液。岩体抬升过程中在其边部往往容易形成拆离带,在岩体中形成脆性断裂构造,均为成矿结构面。后期壳幔混合成因的郭家岭花岗闪长岩,侵入于玲珑层状花岗岩中并一起隆升,使郭家岭花岗闪长岩附近区域的成矿结构面进一步扩大,矿液浓度进一步增大,当上升到特定深度时形成金矿体。玲珑花岗岩和郭家岭花岗闪长岩共同构成成矿地质体,重熔的玲珑层状岩体是成矿基础地质体,郭家岭花岗闪长岩加强了金矿的成矿作用。该认识对开辟胶东新的找矿思路和找矿靶区有很好的指导作用,据此初步预测新的大型拆离带是金矿集中成矿区域,可能成为将来有望取得重大突破的矿集区。     

Thermodynamic properties of tooeleite,Fe63+(As3+O3)4(SO4)(OH)4·4H2O

Tooeleite, nominally Fe₆³⁺(As³⁺O₃)₄(SO₄)(OH)₄·4H₂O, is a relatively uncommon mineral of some acid-mine drainage systems. Yet, if it does occur, it does so in large quantities, indicating that some specific conditions favor the formation of this mineral in the system Fe-As-S-O-H. In this contribution, we report the thermodynamic properties of synthetic tooeleite. The sample was characterized by powder X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, extended X-ray absorption fine-structure spectroscopy, and Mössbauer spectroscopy. These methods confirmed that the sample is pure, devoid of amorphous impurities of iron oxides, and that the oxidation state of arsenic is 3+. Using acid-solution calorimetry, the enthalpy of formation of this mineral from the elements at the standard conditions was determined as −6196.6 ± 8.6 kJ mol⁻¹. The entropy of tooeleite, calculated from low-temperature heat capacity data measured by relaxation calorimetry, is 899.0 ± 10.8 J mol⁻¹ K⁻¹. The calculated standard Gibbs free energy of formation is −5396.3 ± 9.3 kJ mol⁻¹. The log K_sp value, calculated for the reaction Fe₆(AsO₃)₄(SO₄)(OH)₄·4H₂O + 16H⁺ = 6Fe³⁺ + 4H₃AsO₃ + SO₄²⁻ + 8H₂O, is −17.25 ± 1.80. Tooeleite has stability field only at very high activities of aqueous sulfate and arsenate. As such, it does not appear to be a good candidate for arsenic immobilization at polluted sites. An inspection of speciation diagrams shows that the predominance field of Fe³⁺ and As³⁺ overlap only at strongly basic conditions. The formation of tooeleite, therefore, requires strictly selective oxidation of Fe²⁺ to Fe³⁺ and, at the same time, firm conservation of the trivalent oxidation state of arsenic. Such conditions can be realized only by biological systems (microorganisms) which can selectively oxidize one redox-active element but leave the other ones untouched. Hence, tooeleite is the first example of an “obligatory” biomineral under the conditions prevailing at or near the Earth's surface because its formation under these conditions necessitates the action of microorganisms.     

Sequestration of molybdate during transformation of 2-line ferrihydrite under alkaline conditions

Hematite is a thermodynamically stable iron oxide under the aerobic conditions present in most natural surface soils and sediments. Most studies to date have focused on the capacity of hematite to adsorb trace metals and metalloids, but structural incorporation of trace metals within hematite is less recognized. This study assessed the incorporation of molybdenum within the structure of hematite during the phase transformation of 2-line ferrihydrite under alkaline conditions (pH ∼10). Extended X-ray absorption fine structure analyses show molybdenum incorporated into hematite, with two Mo-O shells having a coordination number (CN) of 3 and average bond distances of 1.78 ± 0.01 and 2.08 ± 0.02 Å, respectively, as well as two Mo-Fe shells with a CN of 3 and average bond distances of 3.10 ± 0.02 Å and 3.44 ± 0.02 Å, respectively. This observation suggests the tetrahedrally-coordinated Mo in the molybdate that adsorbs onto the 2-line ferrihydrite changes to an octahedrally-coordinated Mo within the hematite with Mo possibly substituting for Fe in the hematite structure. Our findings suggest that molybdenum partitioning (low concentrations) to iron oxides in the environment can occur due to structural incorporation as well as adsorption.     

昆明盐矿三维建模及溶通性分析

针对地下盐矿在开采过程中,随时可能会因为溶通状况的改变而发生坍塌地质灾害,本文利用矿山数字管理软件Quanty Mine,确定昆明盐矿的三维模型,以期监控盐矿开采不同阶段溶通的变化规律,为避免盐矿过度开采导致地质灾害的发生。     

滇东南安那金矿床成矿流体地球化学研究

云南安那金矿床位于右江盆地南缘,产于二叠纪辉绿岩侵入体之中,广泛发育乳白色石英网脉,蚀变辉绿岩体即为金矿体。与右江盆地以沉积岩为容矿岩石的卡林型金矿床类似,具有硅化、粘土化、碳酸盐化和硫化物化等热液蚀变特征。本文对安那金矿床石英中的流体包裹体岩相学、显微测温学、激光拉曼光谱以及氢氧同位素组成进行了分析,发现成矿期石英中的流体包裹体主要为富含CO_2气-液两相或三相流体包裹体,其均一温度范围为208~312℃(平均254℃),盐度很低,变化范围为0~2%Na Cleqv,成矿溶液的密度为0.88~0.98g/cm~3,表明形成安那金矿床的成矿流体属于中温、低盐度、中-低密度的流体。激光拉曼光谱分析显示,石英中包裹体的气相成分富含CO_2、N_2以及微量CH_4等挥发分。成矿流体的氢氧同位素组成显示变质流体成因,结合矿石显微岩相学结构,认为流体溶蚀交代辉绿岩中的含Ti-Fe辉石或者钛铁矿,溶解Fe的硫化作用过程是含Au黄铁矿和毒砂沉淀富集的重要机制。成矿作用可能与右江盆地南缘印支期造山事件有关。     

山东省蓬莱市西南王金矿床地质特征与资源前景

西南王金矿床位于栖霞-蓬莱成矿带内,是蓬莱地区西部比较典型的缓倾斜薄层石英脉型金矿床。矿体受NNE—NE向断裂控制,倾向SE,倾角15°~25°,呈薄层脉状,分布于郭家岭序列罗家单元的斑状中粒含黑云二长花岗岩和谭格庄序列牟家单元的片麻状细粒奥长花岗岩中。该文通过对矿床地质特征与矿体空间赋存规律的研究,认为矿床深部及周边区域仍有较好的资源前景。     

Geology and mineralization of the Sanshandao supergiant gold deposit (1200 t) in the Jiaodong Peninsula,China: A review

The Jiaodong Peninsula in Shandong Province, China is the world’s third-largest gold metallogenic area, with cumulative proven gold resources exceeding 5000 t. Over the past few years, breakthroughs have been made in deep prospecting at a depth of 500–2000 m, particularly in the Sanshandao area where a huge deep gold orebody was identified. Based on previous studies and the latest prospecting progress achieved by the project team of this study, the following results are summarized. (1) 3D geological modeling results based on deep drilling core data reveal that the Sanshandao gold orefield, which was previously considered to consist of several independent deposits, is a supergiant deposit with gold resources of more than 1200 t (including 470 t under the sea area). The length of the major orebody is nearly 8 km, with a greatest depth of 2312 m below sea level and a maximum length of more than 3 km along their dip direction. (2) Thick gold orebodies in the Sanshandao gold deposit mainly occur in the specific sections of the ore-controlling fault where the fault plane changes from steeply to gently inclined, forming a stepped metallogenic model from shallow to deep level. The reason for this strong structural control on mineralization forms is that when ore-forming fluids migrated along faults, the pressure of fluids greatly fluctuated in fault sections where the fault dip angle changed. Since the solubility of gold in the ore-forming fluid is sensitive to fluid pressure, these sections along the fault plane serve as the target areas for deep prospecting. (3) Thermal uplifting-extensional structures provide thermodynamic conditions, migration pathways, and deposition spaces for gold mineralization. Meanwhile, the changes in mantle properties induced the transformation of the geochemical properties of the lower crust and magmatic rocks. This further led to the reactivation of ore-forming elements, which provided rich materials for gold mineralization. (4) It can be concluded from previous research results that the gold mineralization in the Jiaodong gold deposits occurred at about 120 Ma, which was superimposed by nonferrous metals mineralization at 118–111 Ma. The fluids were dominated by primary mantle water or magmatic water. Metamorphic water occurred in the early stage of the gold mineralization, while the fluid composition was dominated by meteoric water in the late stage. The S, Pb, and Sr isotopic compositions of the ores are similar to those of ore-hosting rocks, indicating that the ore-forming materials mainly derive from crustal materials, with the minor addition of mantle-derived materials. The gold deposits in the Jiaodong Peninsula were formed in an extensional tectonic environment during the transformation of the physical and chemical properties of the lithospheric mantle, which is different from typical orogenic gold deposits. Thus, it is proposed that they are named “Jiaodong-type” gold deposits.©2021 China Geology Editorial Office.     

Geometry and kinematics of brittle deformation in the Central Cameroon Shear Zone (Kékem area): Implication for gold exploration within the Central Africa Fold Belt in Cameroon

The Central Africa Fold Belt (CAFB) is a collision belt endowed with gold deposits in Eastern Cameroon area mined for about 50 years. However, favorable areas for gold exploration are poorly known. This paper presents (1) the kinematics of the brittle deformation in the Kékem area in the SW portion of the Central Cameroon Shear Zone and (2) constraints gold mineralization events with respect to the collisional evolution of the CAFB. The authors interpret that the conjugate ENE to E and NNW to NW trending lineament corresponds to the synthetic (R) and the antithetic (R’) shears, which accompanied the dextral slip along the NE to ENE striking shear. The latter coincides with the last 570–552 Ma D₃ dextral simple shear-dominated transpression, which is parallel to the Bétaré Oya shear zone hosting gold deposits. Gold mineralizations, which mainly occurred during the last dextral shearing, are disseminated within quartz veins associated to Riedel’s previous structures reactivated due to late collisional activities of the CAFB as brittle deformation. Gold mineralizations occurred mainly during the 570–552 Ma D₃ event. The reactivation, which might be due to dextral simple shear during mylonitzation, plausibly remobilized the early gold deposits hosted in syn-compressional rocks and/or possibly focused deep-sourced fluid mixed with those released by dehydration. Therefore, the Central Cameroon Shear Zone where Kékem is located, and which shows similar petrographical and structural features to those controling Batouri gold district, is a target area for gold exploration in Cameroon.