2D and 3D nanopore characterization of gas shale in Longmaxi formation based on FIB-SEM

Studying complex pore structures is the key to understanding the mechanism of shale gas accumulation. FIB-SEM (focused ion beam-scanning electron microscope) is the mainstream and effective instrument for imaging nanopores in gas shales. Based on this technology, 2D and 3D characteristics of shale samples from Lower Silurian Longmaxi formation in southern Sichuan Basin were investigated. 2D experimental results show that the pores in shale are nanometer-sized, and the structure of those nanopores can be classified into three types: organic pores, inorganic pores and micro fractures. Among the three types, organic pores are dominantly developed in the OM (organic matter) with three patterns such as continuous distributed OM, OM between clay minerals and OM between pyrite particles, and the size of organic pores range from 5 nm to 200 nm.Inveresly, inorganic pores and micro fractures are less developed in the Longmaxi shales. 3D digital rocks were reconstructed and segmented by 600 continuous images by FIB cutting and SEM imaging simultaneously. The pore size distribution and porosity can be calculated by this 3D digital core, showing that its average value is 32 nm and porosity is 3.62%.The 3D digital porosity is higher than its helium porosity, which can be regarded as one important parameter for evaluation of shale gas reserves. The 2D and 3D characterized results suggest that the nanometer-sized pores in organic matter take up the fundamental storage space for the Longmaxi shale. These characteristics have contributed to the preservation of shale gas in this complex tectonic area.     

Palaeoenvironments associated with caddisfly-dominated microbial-carbonate mounds from the Tipton Shale Member of the Green River Formation: Eocene Lake Gosiute

Caddisfly‐dominated microbial‐carbonate mounds and avian eggshell fragments are common in a nearshore, oolite facies of the Tipton Shale Member of the Eocene Green River Formation. The fossils occur in a 9 m thick carbonate sequence exposed on the south‐west flank of Essex Mountain, Sweetwater County, Wyoming. The eggshell was determined to be of avian origin by examination of the radial eggshell microstructure by scanning electron microscopy and polarized light microscopy. Common allochems in the limestone include: ooids, pisoids, oncoids, ostracods, gastropods, intraclasts, caddisfly larval/pupal cases, fish bones, avian bones and avian eggshell fragments. Carbonate mineralogy varies between 95% calcite and 95% dolomite. Oxygen stable isotopes vary between −10·1 and −1·3‰ (V‐PDB). Carbon and oxygen stable isotopes co‐vary. Co‐variance of oxygen and carbon stable isotopes indicates that Lake Gosiute was hydrologically closed during the formation of this oolite sequence. Positive excursions of oxygen stable isotope values are correlated with dolomite, caddisfly cases and avian eggshell fragments. These factors are probably associated with lake regression and more saline conditions. Negative excursions of oxygen stable isotope values are correlated with calcite, gastropods and intraclasts. These factors are probably associated with lake transgression and lake freshening. In the 9 m oolite sequence studied there are at least two inferred transgressions, three regressions and two storm events. The caddisfly cases and avian eggshell fragments occur in sediments formed only during low‐stands of the lake as determined by other lake level proxies (dolomites and more positive oxygen stable isotope values). As avian eggshell fragments were formed under subaerial conditions, the avian eggshell fragments independently confirm lake regression. In addition, the occurrence of avian eggshell fragments during saline phases of the lake may indicate that the birds which produced the eggshell preferred saline conditions (or that their food preferred saline lake water).     

Source rock potential (TOC + hydrogen index) evaluation by integrating well log and geochemical data

Evaluation of source rock potential using well log data alone, e.g. density or sonic log, is limited to the assessment of total organic carbon (TOC) content. Well logs that directly measure the most important source quality parameter, the hydrogen content of the kerogen, do not exist. Therefore, a method is proposed that combines log-derived TOC data with calibration schemes relating TOC content to Hydrogen Index and maturity for individual source rock sets. The method has been applied to the compositionally heterogeneous Kimmeridge Clay Formation of the North Sea and the homogeneous Lower Toarcian Shale of N.-Germany. The combination of well log and geochemical data greatly improves the accuracy with which the lateral and vertical distribution of source rocks and their potential can be predicted on a basin and prospect level.     

Sorption behavior of heavy metal pollutants onto shales and correlation with shale geochemistry

The sorption of lead (II) and cadmium (II) on seven shales belonging to the Proterozoic Vindhyan basin, central India, and a black cotton soil, Mumbai, India, was studied and compared with sorbent geochemistry. The sorption equilibrium studies were conducted under completely mixed conditions in batch reactors (pH=5.0 and ionic strength= 0.01 M) at room temperature. The Freundlich model provided better fits to the experimental data compared to Langmuir model. High cadmium and lead sorption was observed for the calcareous shales with greater than 5% CaCO₃. The Freundlich isotherm parameter relating to sorption capacity, i.e., K_F, yielded a strong correlation with the calcium carbonate and calcium oxide content across the various geosorbents studied. The observed sorption pattern may be attributed to complex formation of CaCO₃ with Pb²⁺ and Cd²⁺ leading to surface precipitation. Moreover, the Ca²⁺ present in the sorbents may also involve in ion exchange reaction with lead and cadmium.     

An improved model for estimating the TOC in shale formations

Determination of the total organic carbon (TOC) from well logs is an important step in formation evaluation of shale reservoirs. The ΔlogR model is one of the most commonly used methods in determining the TOC of the source rocks. Wang et al. (2016) made three revisions on ΔlogR model to enhance the prediction accuracy, one of which is to use a changeable slope of log₁₀R_t versus porosity logs to replace a fixed value. Based on the original ΔlogR model and Wang's revision, we propose an improved model for a better TOC estimation in this paper. Specifically, the approximate linear baseline is replaced by a theoretical one. Under this condition, both the slope and resistivity and porosity log values of the baselined rocks vary from depth to depth. The determination of theoretical baseline is presented, and the varied baseline log values are obtained by a simple mathematical technique. In addition to the shale play of Western Canada Sedimentary Basin, two study areas of Sichuan Basin and Ordos Basin in China, were used to assess the applications of the proposed model and its improvement over the original model. The analysis and discussions presented in this paper indicate that the improved model offers more reliable results in shale plays with large lithological variations. Also, the TOC content of the three study areas was estimated using the proposed model. The results showed that the TOC values estimated from well logs and core analysis are in good agreement.     

水作用下页岩物理力学性质实验研究进展

水作用下页岩的物理力学性质对页岩储层压裂增渗改造及井壁稳定性具有重要的影响。本文旨在通过对水作用下页岩物理力学性质实验研究进展的梳理,归纳出目前该类研究得出的发现和观点,并在此基础上进行讨论与展望。主要从如下几个方面进行总结与阐述：（1）水的作用对页岩黏土矿物成分及微观结构的影响;（2）水的作用对页岩的声学性质的影响,包括对页岩的声波波速、衰减特征、时域及频域信号特征的影响;（3）水的作用对页岩宏观力学特性的影响,包括页岩的变形特征、强度特征及破裂特征。基于对上述各方面研究现状的总结,结合页岩气开采的工程实际问题,针对研究现状及未来的研究方向进行讨论。本文将不仅在页岩储层压裂改造设计及井壁稳定研究中有助于我们系统了解水对页岩物理力学性质的影响,也将为在该方面开展进一步研究提供有益的借鉴。     

基于正交各向异性介质理论的地应力地震预测方法

地应力是评价页岩气储层是否可压裂成网的重要参数.利用地震资料进行地应力参数预测可以根据水平应力差异比（DHSR,Differential Horizontal Stress Ratio）值大小来判断.现阶段计算水平应力差异比主要基于具有对称轴的横向各向同性介质理论,即HTI介质假设,欠缺对页岩中实际大量存在的VTI特征的考虑.本研究同时考虑页岩气地层VTI和HTI特征的作用,利用正交各向异性介质岩石物理关系,推导出水平应力差异比与弹性参数及各向异性参数之间的关系.首先,在分析应力应变本构方程的基础上,对正交各向异性介质（OA）的本构方程进行推导,通过胡克定律一般形式获得正交各向异性介质的应力和应变关系;其次,利用该应力和应变关系推导出最大水平应力、最小水平应力和水平应力差异比与地层弹性参数和各向异性参数的关系并定义了参数正交各向异性水平应力差异比（ODHSR,Orthorhombic Differential Horizontal Stress Ratio）;最后,对正交各向异性水平应力差异比ODHSR与具有水平对称轴的横向各向同性介质的DHSR进行了对比,证明了本文的正交各向异性水平应力差异比（ODHSR）计算公式.

     

2001年印度布季7.8级大震与日月同纬效应

2001年1月26日位于印度西海岩的布季发生了7.8级大震,根据天文资料可知,2001年是日月同纬或近于日月同纬之年,用日月同纬效应讨论了布季地震的发震时间。许多震例表明日月同纬之年在北回归线上有发生大震的可能,而且发震时间多在夏季和冬季。     

云南大姚大村铜矿控矿因素分析

对大村铜矿区综合研究,认为塔包谷么向斜是主要的控矿构造,上白垩统江底河组大村段为矿区的含矿层。而且页岩层和砂岩层的矿化明显优于砾岩层,大村铜矿矿化明显受构造、地层和岩性,以及碎屑粒度的制约。     

滇东北新发现龙马溪组页岩气储层研究

国家能源局《页岩气发展规划(2011-2015)》中,云南昭通列为全国19个页岩气勘探开发区之一。滇东北下志留统龙马溪组中施工的2口深孔均有良好的页岩气显示。其中,镇雄昭104孔获工业气流,测得日产页岩气12 800m3/d气量,这是中石油及其下属公司部署在我省勘查页岩气取得的重大突破。详细研究龙马溪组地层层序、岩性特征、分层标志等基础资料,为下一步页岩气勘探建立统一正确的录井分层提供依据。