Thermal surface characteristics of coal fires 1 results of in-situ measurements

Natural underground coal fires are fires in coal seams occurring subsurface. The fires are ignited through a process named spontaneous combustion, which occurs based on a natural reaction but is usually triggered through human interaction. Coal mining activities expose coal to the air. This leads to the exothermal oxidation of the carbon in the coal with the air's oxygen to CO₂ and – under certain circumstances – to spontaneous combustion. Coal fires occur in many countries world wide – however, currently the Chinese coal mining industry faces the biggest problems with coal fires. Coal fires destroy the valuable resource coal and furthermore lead to many environmental degradation phenomena such as the deterioration of surrounding vegetation, land subsidence and the emission of toxic gasses (CO, N₂O). They additionally contribute to the emission of green house relevant gasses such as CO₂ and CH₄ to the atmosphere.In this paper we present thermal characteristics of coal fires as measured in-situ during a field campaign to the Wuda coal fire area in south-central Inner Mongolia, China. Thermal characteristics include temperature anomaly measurements at the surface, spatial surface temperature profiles of fire areas and unaffected background areas, diurnal temperature profiles, and temperature measurements inside of coal fire induced cracks in the overlying bedrock. For all the measurements the effects of uneven solar heating through influences of slope and aspect are considered.Our findings show that coal fires result in strong or subtle thermal surface anomalies. Especially the latter can easily be influenced by heating of the surrounding background material through solar influences. Temperature variation of background rocks with different albedo, slope, aspect or vegetation cover can substantially influence the detectability of thermal anomalies. In the worst case coal fire related thermal anomalies can be completely masked by solar patterns during the daytime. Thus, night-time analysis is the most suitable for thermal anomaly mapping of underground coal fires, although this is not always feasible. The heat of underground coal fires only progresses very slowly through conduction in the rock material. Anomalies of coal fires completely covered by solid unfractured bedrock are very weak and were only measured during the night. The thermal pattern of underground coal fires manifested on the surface during the daytime is thus the pattern of cracks and vents, which occur due to the volume loss underground and which support radiation and convective energy transport of hot gasses. Inside coal fire temperatures can hardly be measured and can only be recorded if the glowing coal is exposed through a wider crack in the overlaying bedrock. Direct coal fire temperatures measured ranged between 233 °C and 854 °C. The results presented can substantially support the planning of thermal mapping campaigns, analyses of coal fire thermal anomalies in remotely sensed data, and can provide initial and boundary conditions for coal fire related numerical modeling.In a second paper named “Thermal Characteristics of Coal Fires 2: results of measurements on simulated coal fires” [Zhang J., Kuenzer C., Tetzlaff A., Oettl D., Zhukov B., Wagner W., 2007. Thermal Characteristics of Coal Fires 2: Result of measurements on simulated coal fires. Accepted for publication at Journal of Applied Geophysics. doi:10.1016/j.jappgeo.2007.08.003] we report about thermal characteristics of simulated coal fires simulated under simplified conditions. The simulated set up allowed us to measure even more parameters under undisturbed conditions — especially inside fire temperatures. Furthermore we could demonstrate the differences between open surface coal fires and covered underground coal fires. Thermal signals of coal fires in near range thermal remotely sensed imagery from an observing tower and from an airplane are presented and discussed.     

Application of wavelet transformation to determine wavelengths and phase velocities of gravity waves observed by lidar measurements

During the last two decades, important advances have been made in the investigation of gravity waves. However, more efforts are needed to study certain aspects of gravity waves. In the real atmosphere, gravity waves occur with different properties at different altitudes and, most often, simultaneously. In this case, when there is more than one dominant wave, the determination of gravity wave characteristics, such as the vertical wavelength and the phase velocity, is difficult. The interpretation of temperature perturbation plots versus the altitude and time as well as the application of the Fourier spectral analysis can produce errors.Exact knowledge of the wave characteristics is important both for determination of other characteristics, for example, the horizontal wave components, and for study of wave climatology. The wavelet analysis of vertical temperature profiles allows one to examine the wave's location in space. Up to now, gravity waves have been studied mainly by continuous wavelet transformation to determine dominant waves. We apply wavelet analysis to a time series of temperature profiles, observed by the ALOMAR ozone lidar at Andoya, Norway, and by the U. Bonn lidar system at ESRANGE, Sweden, both for determination of the dominant waves and for specifying the vertical wavelengths and the vertical component of the phase velocities. For this purpose, the wavelet amplitude spectra and the wavelet phase spectra are filtered and Hovmöller diagrams for dominant wavelengths are constructed. The advantage of this type of diagrams is that they give clear evidence for the localization of the dominant waves in space and time and for the development of their phase fronts.     

Interpretation of Gravity Anomalies with the Normalized Full Gradient (NFG) Method and an Example

The Normalized Full Gradient (NFG) method which was put forward about 50 years ago has been used for downward continuation of gravity potential data, especially in the former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. This method nullifies perturbations due to the passage of mass depth during downward continuation. The method depends on the downwards analytical continuation of normalized full gradient values of gravity data. Analytical continuation discriminates certain structural anomalies which cannot be distinguished in the observed gravity field. This method has been used in various petroleum and tectonic studies. The Trapeze method was used for the determination of Fourier coefficients during the application of this method. No other techniques for calculating these coefficients have been used. However, the Filon method was used for the determination of Fourier coefficients during the application of the NFG method in this work. This method, rather than the Trapeze method, should be preferred for indicating abnormal mass resources at the lower harmonics. In this study, the NFG method using the Filon method has been applied the first time to theoretical models of gravity profiles as example field at the Hasankale-Horasan petroleum exploration province where successful results were achieved. Hydrocarbon presence was shown on the NFG sections by the application of NFG downward continuation operations on theoretical models. Important signs of hydrocarbon structure on the NFG section for field and model data at low harmonics are obtained more effectively using this method.     

对重力势二阶垂直偏导数的一种新的取样方法

从目前的研究来看，二阶垂直导数（X和Y两个方向）的求解方法较简单，它采用的五个因子的数字滤波的最小二乘法来优化数据。但是在较小区域面积时（对工程和环境应用中的重力数据），重力异常很容易放大和被区域重力场掩盖，我们认为产生的缘由是表示重力场的x和y方向上的二次多项式引起的。因此，为了逼近重力水平方向的偏导可以设计一个好的滤波器来拟合在xy平面的重力场值，再得出想要的重力垂直方向偏导，文中最后对提出的方法在前人经典模型上和野外实践进行了验证。     

降水和温度MOS预报方法探讨

文中分析了庆阳地区春季降水气候特征和环流形势 ,用 1995～ 1998年 3～ 5月T10 6资料建立了该区 8县 (市 )春季降水、温度MOS预报方程 ,进行了回代检验和试报 ,并提出了模式更换后的处理方法     

重磁遗传算法三维反演中动态数组优化方法

将地下场源划分成很多规划小单元，并且反演这些单元的物性变化是重磁反演，特别是三维反演的重要方向。在应用遗传算法进行该类反演过程中，隐含着数据量大时高维动态数据内存管理问题。为此，作者在本文中提出了简单、有效的动态内存优化方法。     

苏北大陆科学钻探靶区重磁异常反演解释

对江苏东海县毛北地区重、磁观测异常进行了处理和特征分析,并根据科学钻探主要目标体榴辉岩与其围岩有达0.9×103kg/m3的明显密度差,进行了等效密度反演成像与综合地震约束反演计算.给出了该地区重力异常模型,可作为综合地质与地球物理研究的一个基础.     

一种插值相似方法作温度预测的应用研究

将插值方法运用到短期气象预测中，其基本原理是按照相似原理将产生相似结果来作预报。对云南昆明等四站温度进行了九年定性和定量预报检验，结果表明：这种方法具有良好的预报能力，可以作要素预报应用。     

实测天然气扩散系数在地层条件下的校正

在研究天然气在地下岩石中扩散机理及扩散系数测试方法的基础上，指出了实测天然气扩散系数与地层条件下的差异，利用实测饱和水和干样条件下人造石英粉砂岩的扩散系数值的比值与其物性之间的关系，利用爱因斯坦方程产实测天然气扩散系数的饱和介质转换和温度校正方法，该方法的实际应用表明，校正结果符合地质规律，表明该校正方法是可行的。     

温度对复分解法制硝酸钾生产过程的影响

探讨以硝酸铵和氯化钾为原料、复分解法制硝酸钾工艺中 ,配料、硝酸钾结晶、氯化铵结晶等处操作温度对产量、质量、操作时间等的影响