Inversion of multimode surface wave data: evidence for sub-lithospheric anisotropy

Summary. Multiparameter inversions of multimode dispersion data are performed for two large regions: the Pacific Ocean and North America. Anisotropy is taken into account by considering transversely isotropic structures with a vertical axis of symmetry. Two fundamental questions are studied in detail: (1) how to make the inverted models consistent when using different sets of parameters, (2) what is the significance of transversely isotropic inversion for the actual Earth's structure? It is proved that full consistency of the inverted models can be achieved by properly taking into account some a priori informations on the model and it is shown that the use of transversely isotropic models with vertical axis of symmetry does not cause severe limitations when interpreting the data. The models we have obtained are discussed in the light of these investigations. Considering an olivine-rich upper mantle, we make a tentative interpretation of these models in terms of preferred orientation of the a -axis of the crystals in one fixed horizontal direction.     

由震源机制和地震波各向异性探讨青藏高原岩石圈变形

本文据青藏高原天然地震震源参数和地震波各向异性资料，讨论了高原岩圈不同圈层的变形特性。     

An approach to model the mechanical behavior of transversely isotropic materials

The present work proposes an approach to adapt existing isotropic models to transversely isotropic materials. The main idea is to introduce equivalence relations between the real material and a fictitious isotropic one on which one can take all the advantages of the well‐established isotropic theory. Two applications of this approach are presented here: a failure criterion and a damage model that takes into account the load‐induced anisotropy. In both cases, theoretical predictions are in agreement with the experimental data. In the present paper, the developed approach is applied to sedimentary rock materials; nevertheless, it can be generalized to any material that exhibits transverse isotropy. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Are open fractures necessarily aligned with maximum horizontal stress?

Fluid flow in fractured rock is an increasingly central issue in recovering water and hydrocarbon supplies and geothermal energy, in predicting flow of pollutants underground, in engineering structures, and in understanding large-scale crustal behaviour. Conventional wisdom assumes that fluids prefer to flow along fractures oriented parallel or nearly parallel to modern-day maximum horizontal compressive stress, or S_Hmax. The reasoning is that these fractures have the lowest normal stresses across them and therefore provide the least resistance to flow. For example, this view governs how geophysicists design and interpret seismic experiments to probe fracture fluid pathways in the deep subsurface. Contrary to these widely held views, here we use core, stress measurement, and fluid flow data to show that S_Hmax does not necessarily coincide with the direction of open natural fractures in the subsurface (>3 km depth). Consequently, in situ stress direction cannot be considered to predict or control the direction of maximum permeability in rock. Where effective stress is compressive and fractures are expected to be closed, chemical alteration dictates location of open conduits, either preserving or destroying fracture flow pathways no matter their orientation.     

页岩各向异性特征的试验研究

为研究彭水页岩气区块储层的各向异性特征,开展了石柱县龙马溪组页岩的单轴和三轴压缩试验,分析了其力学特性、强度特征和破裂模式的各向异性,并揭示了其破坏机制的各向异性。结果表明：(1) 龙马溪组页岩具有明显的各向异性特征,弹性模量在平行层理方向最大,垂直层理方向最小,且围压的增加使其增加速率不断减小;0°、30°和60°、90°页岩的泊松比随围压的增加呈现出了相反的变化规律,这可能与页岩层理间孔隙和微裂缝的良好发育有关。(2) 相同围压下,0°试样强度最高,90°次之,30°最低,总体上呈现出两边高、中间低的U型变化规律,而不同角度的Hoek-Brown强度准则能较好地反映其强度的各向异性特征。(3) 页岩破裂模式的各向异性是由破坏机制的各向异性引起的,而强度的各向异性是由破坏机制的各向异性控制的。单轴压缩时,0°页岩为沿层理的张拉劈裂破坏,30°为沿层理的剪切滑移破坏,60°为贯穿层理和沿层理的复合剪切破坏,90°为贯穿层理的张拉破坏。三轴压缩时,0°为贯穿层理的共轭剪切破坏,30°为沿层理的剪切滑移破坏,60°和90°为贯穿层理的剪切破坏;页岩地层的层状沉积结构和层理间的弱胶结作用是破坏机制各向异性的根源。研究结果为水平井井壁的稳定性分析和水力压裂施工设计等提供了技术参考。     

Shear-wave splitting in the crust beneath the southeast Capital area of North China

This study focuses on the southeast Capital area of North China (38.5–39.85° N, 115.5–118.5° E). Shear-wave splitting parameters at 20 seismic stations are obtained by a systematic analysis method applied to data recorded by the Capital Area Seismograph Network (CASN) between the years 2002 and 2005. Although some differences in the results are observed, the average fast-wave polarization is N88.2° W ± 40.7° and the average normalized slow wave time delay is 3.55 ± 2.93 ms/km. The average polarization is consistent with the regional maximum horizontal compressive stress and also with the maximum principal strain derived from global positioning system measurements in North China. In spite of the uneven distribution of faults around the array stations that likely introduce some amount of scatter in the shear-wave splitting measurements, site-dependent polarizations of fast shear wave are clearly observed: in the northern half of the study area, the polarizations at CASN stations show E–W direction, whereas in the southern half the polarizations exhibit a variety of possible azimuths, thus suggesting dissimilar stress field and tectonic frame in both areas. Comparing the splitting results with those previously obtained in the northwest part of the region, we find a difference in polarization of about 20° between the southeast and northwest parts of the Capital area; also, in the southeast Capital area the average time delay is smaller than in the northwest Capital area, thus making clear that the magnitude of crustal seismic anisotropy is not the same in the two zones. Being the shear-wave splitting polarizations in the southeast Capital area, which lies on the basin, clearly different from the observed polarizations in the northwest Capital area, where uplifts and basin converge, it is quite evident that the shear-wave splitting results are consequence of the tectonics and stress field affecting the two regions.     

不同高径比时软岩强度与变形尺寸效应试验研究

以直径20~50 mm,高径比为2︰1的粉砂岩、花岗岩和大理岩为研究对象,探讨尺寸变化和岩性对岩样应力-应变曲线、破坏、单轴抗压强度、弹性模量和泊松比的影响,并分析产生尺寸效应的原因。试验结果表明,随着尺寸的增大：3种岩样的应力-应变曲线吻合度逐渐增强;粉砂岩及大理岩的破坏形式由单斜面剪切破坏向X状共轭斜面剪切破坏发展,花岗岩主要以X状共轭斜面剪切破坏为主,破坏程度均逐渐增大;3种岩样的单轴抗压强度与弹性模量整体呈增大的趋势,且在直径20~30 mm之间增幅较大,30~50 mm之间增幅较小;不同岩样的破坏形式大致相同,但应力-应变曲线离散性、峰值后应力-应变曲线特征、破坏程度有所差别。泊松比无明确尺寸效应特征,使用电阻应变片式的局部测量方式并不能很好地反应岩石试件的变形特征。产生尺寸效应的主要原因为岩样本身的不均质性,其次为端部效应。     

Modelling of anisotropic damage in brittle rocks under compression dominated stresses

A new model for describing induced anisotropic damage in brittle rocks is proposed. Although phenomenological, the model is based on physical grounds of micromechanical analysis. Induced damage is represented by a second rank tensor, which is related to the density and orientation of microcracks. Damage evolution is related to the propagation condition of microcracks. The onset of microcrack coalescence leading to softening behaviour is also considered. The effective elastic compliance of the damaged material is obtained from a specific form of Gibbs potential. Irreversible damage‐related strains due to residual opening of microcracks after unloading are also captured. All the model's parameters could be determined from conventional triaxial compression tests. The proposed model is applied to a typical brittle rock. Comparison between test data and numerical simulations shows an overall good agreement. The proposed model is able to describe the main features related to induced microcracks in brittle geomaterials. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A middle surface concept (MSC) model for saturated sands in general stress space

An elastoplastic constitutive model is proposed for saturated sands in general stress space using the middle surface concept (MSC). In MSC, different features of stress–strain response of a material are divided into different pseudo‐yield surfaces. The true‐yield surface representing the true response is established by using various links between the yield surfaces. In this MSC sand model, several well‐known features of sand response are represented by three different pseudo‐yield surfaces, which are developed in a simple and straightforward way. These features include the critical state behaviour, the effects of state parameter, unloading and reloading plastic deformation, the influence of fabric anisotropy, and phase transformation line related behaviour. Finally, the model predictions and test results are compared for two different types of sands under a variety of loading conditions and good comparisons are obtained. The application of MSC to saturated sand modelling shows the versatility of MSC as a general concept for modelling stress–strain response of materials. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.