Determinants and correlates of language shift among the tribals of Central India

Language shift from traditional language to non-traditional has become an important aspect of the study in various disciplines including social and regional sciences besides linguistics. The geographers have studied the patterns of spatial distribution and the processes through which the shift occurs and also analysed the factors which are responsible for the shift. Socio-economic and political implications of the shift have been adequately emphasized in geographical studies. The present study is an attempt in this direction by selecting some of the important tribal groups of Central India. The paper attempts to establish the relationship between language shift and socio-economic conditions among the Bhils, the Korkus, the Mundas and the Santals of Central India. The stepwise regression model has been applied to understand the causality of the shift while the degree of linguistic exposure has been calculated to determine the magnitude of language shift among them for a comparative analysis. Both primary and secondary data have been analysed for this study. Though language shift among the tribal population has exposed them to the outside world and helped them to achieve higher levels of socio-economic development, its consequences seem to be more serious as it has led to the division of the tribal society and formation of separate groups of people who have been alienated from the traditional people. Thus, the process of linguistic shift is held responsible for the loss of tribal identity and their traditional culture. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

全新世黄土高原塬区植被特征

全新世高分辨率的黄土-古土壤孢粉研究,对于黄土高原历史时期植被的恢复与重建提供了直接的生物学证据.现代遥感数据显示黄土高原主要塬区为农业型生态环境,植被以旱作农作物为主,已无原生植被生长.最近12 000 aBP以来耀县剖面的孢粉记录显示,黄土高原南缘塬区植被经历了干草原-湿润性草原-干草原-湿润草原-草原5个阶段, 表明在黄土高原南缘降水较丰富的半湿润地区,塬区植被仍以草原植被为主,无森林生长.渭南姜村、洛川和富县等塬区剖面的孢粉记录也显示出,全新世以来,即使在全新世高温期水分较现在丰沛的时期,黄土高原塬区植被仍以灌木、草本植物为主,并无森林生长.     

基于傅里叶变换的谷间距特征信息提取及其影响因素研究

谷间距(Valley Spacing)是描述相邻沟谷距离的特征参数,它能较好地反映沟谷的次序等级和空间分布特征。本研究以黑河正义峡和兰州大岭岘2个样区为例,利用ArcGIS软件,将无人机测绘获取的0.12 m分辨率地表高程数据通过重采样生成不同分辨率的数字地表模型。通过MATLAB软件,将不同分辨率、不同空间域的数字地表模型作为二维空间域信号进行傅里叶变换。通过傅里叶变换及频谱分析研究地形的频谱特征与地表谷间距之间的转换关系。分析结果显示:①当区域内只有一级沟谷时,频谱中谷间距特征信号的有效提取要求地形分辨率至少优于1/5谷间距,分辨率的粗略化则直接影响着地形频谱中谷间距特征信号的识别,但是分析空间域对频谱谷间距特征信号的捕获影响较小;②当区域内有多级沟谷时,分辨率优于1/3谷间距时即可有效提取到该级沟谷的谷间距特征信号,分辨率的粗略化和空间域的增大都会使得频谱中较低序次等级沟谷的谷间距特征信号减弱,而较高序次等级沟谷的谷间距特征信号增强。     

古新世—中新世以来青藏高原北缘隆升的特征——来自可可西里盆地的报告

关于青藏高原隆升的时间有45 Ma、32 Ma、14 Ma等见解,一直存在争议。本文以青藏高原腹地最大的红色盆地可可西里为例,从古新世—中新世时期的沉积、生物、火山岩的特征等诸多方面,阐述青藏高原显著开始隆升的时间、表现特点和作用,并认为中新世初期,青藏高原有一次强烈的降温事件;在物质组分上,以钙质粘土、埃达克（Adakitic）火山岩为主;生物上以寒冷、干旱标志的裸子植物为主的植硅体;中新世中期之后青藏高原全面抬升。     

Temporal-spatial climate change in the last 35 years in Tibet and its geo-environmental consequences

The climate change in Tibet has induced complex water resource and geo-environmental changes. Tibet is located in a unique geographical zone with the characteristics of middle-low latitude, high altitude and very low average air temperature, and the climate there has been changed both in time and in space under the effect of global warming. Except for two regions without data, the changes of both air temperature and rainfall in the last 35 years in Tibet exhibit evident zonational patterns. In general, air temperature increases higher from east to west, whereas rainfall changes from decrease to increase from south to north. Except for some areas in southern Tibet, the general increase of rainfall accelerated the rate of water cycle, and caused an increase in the gross amount of water resources in Tibet. Moreover, under the impact of climate change, the frequency of occurrence of landslide and debris flow has slightly increased in the high mountain–canyon regions of eastern Tibet. Also, the debris flow due to ice lake outburst has evidently increased in the plateau mountain–lake basin regions of southern Tibet. By contrast, desertification in the western plateau–lake basin regions of northern Tibet has been intensified.     

近30年来青海省风蚀气候侵蚀力时空差异及驱动力分析

青藏高原气候寒冷、多大风,冻融、风化和风蚀作用强烈,易发生土壤风蚀。气候对土壤风蚀的影响可用风蚀气候因子指数（C）度量。基于联合国粮农组织（FAO）提出的C计算方法,根据1984-2013年间连续完整的青海省气象站地面观测数据,应用地理加权回归模型（GWR）、重心及其转移模型,并结合本文定义的有效敏感性指数、有效影响面积等指标,得到全省风蚀气候侵蚀力及其影响因子的时空分布及其演化规律,并对其驱动力和机理进行了初步分析。结果表明：30年来,全省风蚀气候侵蚀力总体特征是西北高东南低并呈下降趋势,风蚀气候侵蚀力强的区域明显向西南扩展,20世纪80年代是柴达木盆地,90年代扩展到青南高原西北部边缘,21世纪基本涵盖了青南高原的西部;风速是影响风蚀气候侵蚀力的主导因子,其有效敏感区重心从柴达木盆地西南部边缘,移动到海拔较高的青南高原西部地区,这与高原近地面气旋系统中心总体移动趋势相反;其次是气温,其有效敏感区重心从海拔较低的青海省中部地区向海拔较高的青南高原移动,这与青南高原地区的海拔梯度式增温规律有关,即从高原边缘向高原腹地升温,且海拔越高,增温越快;降水主要影响柴达木盆地的侵蚀力,其有效敏感区重心向东南扩展,这可能与高原夏季风进退有关。研究结果可为青藏高原土壤风蚀灾害的预防、评估以及预测提供区域性差异化的技术支持与理论指导,也可为青藏高原乃至全球生源要素（C、N、P、S等）循环的大尺度驱动力研究提供新的研究视角。     

Variation of Uplift Velocit y in Qinghai-Tibet Plateau: Its Occasion and Consequences

The velocity of uplift in the Qinghai-Tibet plateau has been changed in a remarkable sense by the continental collision.In this paper the buoyancy variation,which occurred in the crustal shortening and thickening process,was used to explain the varied velocities.In the initial stage subcrustal material came from anomalous mantle with high temperature,then the density contrast between crust and mantle was small; in turn both the buoyancy and the surface uplift were gentle.When the thickened crust was squeezed into normal mantle in the later stage,the significant buoyancy would cause a rapid uplift.The variation of buoyancy also affected the stress regime around the plateau.     

攀西地区的深部地壳结构与构造

根据1984-1985年地震测深资料,论述了攀西地区的深部地质特征。该区地壳厚50-60km;具高、低速相间的多层结构及断块构造;五个主要速度界面中,界面R₄稳定且清晰,为上、下地壳的分界面,R₆稳定并有较强的能量反射,为壳、幔之间的界面（莫霍面）,莫霍面沿构造带北深南浅（56-50km）,横穿构造带西深东浅（60-48km）。构造带内的上地壳较薄,纵横速度变化均较大,而下地壳较厚,速度较均匀,上地壳底部的低速层,在构造带内较带外薄而浅,P_n速度较低,为7.54-7.80km/s,属壳-幔过渡带,厚13-22km。小江、四开、安宁河及金河等断裂为超壳型或壳内断裂,多为逆冲断层。该构造带的各种深部特征表明它为大陆高原型年轻构造带。     

黄土区沟谷发育与气候变化的关系(以洛川黄土塬区为例)

黄土区沟谷侵蚀与气候变化有密切关系。黄土是干冷气候环境中堆积的地质体,只有在干冷时期才是稳定的。气候变湿润时黄土区发生冲沟侵蚀。洛川黄土塬区20万年以来至少出现过五次明显的侵蚀时期,该区河流的侵蚀与堆积过程恰好和冲沟发育过程相反,但两者在时间上可以较好地对比。     

NEW DISCOVERY OF RESHUI-TAOSTUO RIVER FAULT IN DULAN,QINGHAI PROVINCE AND ITS IMPLICATIONS

The 40km-long, NEE trending Reshui-Taostuo River Fault was found in the southern Dulan-Chaka highland by recent field investigation, which is a strike-slip fault with some normal component. DEM data was generated by small unmanned aerial vehicle(UAV)on key geomorphic units with resolution<0.05m. Based on the interpretation and field investigation, we get two conclusions:1)It is the first time to define the Reshui-Taostuo River Fault, and the fault is 40km long with a 6km-long surface rupture; 2)There are left-handed dislocations in the gullies and terraces cut by the fault. On the high-resolution DEM image obtained by UAV, the offsets are(9.3±0.5) m, (17.9±1.5) m, and(36.8±2) m, measured by topographic profile recovery of gullies. The recovery measurements of two terraces present that the horizontal offset of T₁/T₀ is(18.2±1.5) m and the T₂/T₁ is (35.8±2) m, which is consistent with the offsets from gullies. According to the historical earthquake records, a M5 3/4 earthquake on April 10, 1938 and a M_S5.0 earthquake on March 21, 1952 occurred at the eastern end of the surface rupture, which may be related to the activity of the fault. By checking the county records of Dulan and other relevant data, we find that there are no literature records about the two earthquakes, which is possibly due to the far distance to the epicenter at that time, the scarcity of population in Dulan, or that the earthquake occurred too long ago that led to losing its records. The southernmost ends of the Eastern Kunlun Fault and the Elashan Fault converge to form a wedge-shaped extruded fault block toward the northwest. The Dulan Basin, located at the end of the wedge-shaped fault block, is affected by regional NE and SW principal compressive stress and the shear stress of the two boundary faults. The Dulan Basin experienced a complex deformation process of compression accompanying with extension. In the process of extrusion, the specific form of extension is the strike-slip faults at each side of the wedge, and there is indeed a north-east and south-west compression between the two controlling wedge-shaped fault block boundary faults, the Eastern Kunlun and Elashan Faults. The inferred mechanism of triangular wedge extrusion deformation in this area is quite different from the pure rigid extrusion model. Therefore, Dulan Basin is a wedge-shaped block sandwiched between the two large-scale strike-slip faults. Due to the compression of the northeast and southwest directions of the region, the peripheral faults of the Dulan Basin form a series of southeast converging plume thrust faults on the northeast edge of the basin near the Elashan Fault, which are parallel to the Elashan Fault in morphology and may converge with the Elashan Fault in subsurface. The southern marginal fault of the Dulan Basin(Reshui-Taostuo River Fault)near the Eastern Kunlun fault zone is jointly affected by the left-lateral strike-slip Eastern Kunlun Fault and the right-lateral strike-slip Elashan Fault, presenting a left-lateral strike-slip characteristic. Meanwhile, the wedge-shaped fault block extrudes to the northwest, causing local extension at the southeast end, and the fault shows the extensional deformation. These faults absorb or transform the shear stress in the northeastern margin of the Tibet Plateau. Therefore, our discovery of the Dulan Reshui-Taostuo River Fault provides important constraints for better understanding of the internal deformation mode and mechanism of the fault block in the northeastern Tibetan plateau. The strike of Reshui-Taostuo River Fault is different from the southern marginal fault of the Qaidam Basin. The Qaidam south marginal burial fault is the boundary fault between the Qaidam Basin and the East Kunlun structural belt, with a total length of ~500km. The geophysical data show that Qaidam south marginal burial fault forms at the boundary between the positive gravity anomaly of the southern East Kunlun structural belt and the negative gravity anomaly gradient zone of the northern Qaidam Basin, showing as a thrust fault towards the basin. The western segment of the fault was active at late Pleistocene, and the eastern segment near Dulan County was active at early-middle Pleistocene. The Reshui-Taostuo River Fault is characterized by sinistral strike-slip with a normal component. The field evidence indicates that the latest active period of this fault was Holocene, with a total length of only 40km. Neither remote sensing image interpretation nor field investigation indicate the fault extends further westward and intersects with the Qaidam south marginal burial fault. Moreover, it shows that its strike is relatively consistent with the East Kunlun fault zone in spatial distribution and has a certain angle with the burial fault in the southern margin of Qaidam Basin. Therefore, there is no structural connection between the Reshui-Taostuo River Fault and the Qaidam south marginal burial fault.