Supraglacial weathering crust dynamics inferred from cryoconite hole hydrology

Water levels in cryoconite holes were monitored at high resolution over a 3‐week period on Austre Brøggerbreen (Svalbard). These data were combined with melt and energy balance modelling, providing insights into the evolution of the glacier's near‐surface hydrology and confirming that the hydrology of the near‐surface, porous ice known as the ‘weathering crust’ is dynamic and analogous to a shallow‐perched aquifer. A positive correlation between radiative forcing of melt and drainage efficiency was found within the weathering crust. This likely resulted from diurnal contraction and dilation of interstitial pore spaces driven by variations in radiative and turbulent fluxes in the surface energy balance, occasionally causing ‘sudden drainage events’. A linear decrease in water levels in cryoconite holes was also observed and attributed to cumulative increases in near‐surface ice porosity over the measurement period. The transport of particulate matter and microbes between cryoconite holes through the porous weathering crust is shown to be dependent upon weathering crust hydraulics and particle size. Cryoconite holes therefore yield an indication of the hydrological dynamics of the weathering crust and provide long‐term storage loci for cryoconite at the glacier surface. This study highlights the importance of the weathering crust as a crucial component of the hydrology, ecology and biogeochemistry of the glacier ecosystem and glacierized regions and demonstrates the utility of cryoconite holes as natural piezometers on glacier surfaces. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A bounding surface elasto‐viscoplastic constitutive model for non‐isothermal cyclic analysis of asphaltic materials

An elasto‐viscoplastic constitutive model for asphaltic materials is presented within the context of bounding surface plasticity theory, taking into account the effects of the stress state, void binder degree of saturation, temperature and strain rate on the material behaviour. A stress state dependent non‐linear elasticity model is introduced to represent time‐independent recoverable portion of the deformation. The consistent visco‐plasticity framework is utilised to capture the rate‐dependent, non‐recoverable strain components. The material parameters introduced in the model are identified, and their determination from conventional laboratory tests is discussed. The capability of the model to reproduce experimentally observed response of asphaltic materials is demonstrated through numerical simulations of several laboratory test data from the literature. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Cracking risk of partially saturated porous media—Part I: Microporoelasticity model

Drying of deformable porous media results in their shrinkage, and it may cause cracking provided that shrinkage deformations are hindered by kinematic constraints. This is the motivation to develop a thermodynamics‐based microporoelasticity model for the assessment of cracking risk in partially saturated porous geomaterials. The study refers to 3D representative volume elements of porous media, including a two‐scale double‐porosity material with a pore network comprising (at the mesoscale) 3D mesocracks in the form of oblate spheroids, and (at the microscale) spherical micropores of different sizes. Surface tensions prevailing in all interfaces between solid, liquid, and gaseous matters are taken into account. To establish a thermodynamics‐based crack propagation criterion for a two‐scale double‐porosity material, the potential energy of the solid is derived, accounting—in particular—for mesocrack geometry changes (main original contribution) and for effective micropore pressures, which depend (due to surface tensions) on the pore radius. Differentiating the potential energy with respect to crack density parameter yields the thermodynamical driving force for crack propagation, which is shown to be governed by an effective macrostrain. It is found that drying‐related stresses in partially saturated mesocracks reduce the cracking risk. The drying‐related effective underpressures in spherical micropores, in turn, result in a tensile eigenstress of the matrix in which the mesocracks are embedded. This way, micropores increase the mesocracking risk. Model application to the assessment of cracking risk during drying of argillite is the topic of the companion paper (Part II). Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Shape of pinch and swell structures as a viscosity indicator: Application to lower crustal polyphase rocks

Pinch and swell structures occur where a more competent layer in a weaker matrix is subjected to layer-parallel extension. In this contribution, we use numerical models to explore the use of pinch and swell structure shape symmetry and asymmetry as a determinant of relative viscosity between layers. Maximum asymmetry is attained when the matrix viscosity on one side is subtly weaker than the competent layer, while the other side is significantly weaker.Our numerical results are directly applied to asymmetrically developed pinch and swell structures in exposed lower continental crust. Here, shape geometries observed in a shear zone comprised of plagioclase-dominated, garnet-dominated and mixed amphibole-plagioclase-dominated bands, reveals that the plagioclase-dominated band is the most competent band and is marginally stronger (2×) and significantly stronger (10–40×) than the fine grained garnet-dominated and mixed amphibole-plagioclase-dominated band, respectively. Based on the experimentally determined viscosity of a plagioclase-dominated material and quantitative microstructural analysis, the viscosity range of the natural rock bands is 2.8 × 10¹⁵ to 1.1 × 10¹⁷ Pa s. Consequently, the assumption that the experimentally-derived plagioclase flow law is an appropriate proxy for the middle to lower continental crust may lead to a viscosity over-estimation by up to forty times.     

The interplay and effects of deformation and crystallized melt on the rheology of the lower continental crust,Fiordland, New Zealand

Microstructural, electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD), and misorientation analyses of a migmatitic granulite-facies orthogneiss from the exhumed lower crust of a Cretaceous continental arc in Fiordland, New Zealand show how deformation was accommodated during and after episodes of melt infiltration and high-grade metamorphism. Microstructures in garnet, omphacite, plagioclase, and K-feldspar suggest that an early stage of deformation was achieved by dislocation creep of omphacite and plagioclase, with subsequent deformation becoming partitioned into plagioclase. Continued deformation after melt infiltration resulted in strain localization in the leucosome of the migmatite, where a change of plagioclase deformation mechanism promoted the onset of grain boundary sliding, most likely accommodated by diffusion creep, in fine recrystallized plagioclase grains. Our results suggest three distinctive transitions in the rheology of the lower crust of this continental arc, where initial weakening was primarily achieved by deformation of both omphacite and plagioclase. Subsequent strain localization in plagioclase of the leucosome indicates that the zones of former melt are weaker than the restite, and that changes in deformation mechanisms within plagioclase, and an evolution of its strength, primarily control the rheology of the lower crust during and after episodes of melting and magma addition.     

湘西合仁坪金矿床硫、铅同位素地球化学

湘西柳林汊一带广泛分布钠长石_石英脉型金矿,合仁坪金矿床是其典型代表。文章对合仁坪金矿床的硫、铅同位素进行了研究,并与区域石英脉型金矿床进行对比,探讨了该矿的成矿物质来源,并初步确定了其矿床成因。研究表明,合仁坪金矿床硫化物的δ34S值范围较窄(-4.8‰~4.4‰),平均为-0.6‰,该矿床的硫为深源硫,由深部变质流体带入;铅的同位素组成较均一,并表现出明显的造山带铅的特点。结合区域成矿作用,进一步研究揭示,合仁坪金矿床为一典型的造山型金矿,其成矿可能与湘西雪峰山地区加里东期的造山作用有关。     

湖南宝山矿床花岗岩类硫-铅同位素和流体包裹体研究及其成因意义

宝山铜铅锌多金属矿床是湖南重要的铅锌生产基地。矿床内矽卡岩型铜(钼)矿化受侏罗纪花岗闪长斑岩的控制,而主要的铅锌矿体则产于远离岩体的碳酸盐地层中,且缺乏可靠的矿化年龄限制。为了查明宝山铅锌矿体与花岗闪长斑岩之间的成因关系,文章对宝山花岗岩类中浸染状黄铁矿的硫同位素和钾长石的铅同位素,以及铅锌矿石萤石脉石的流体包裹体进行了测试和研究,并与前人报道的铅锌硫化物矿石的硫、铅同位素进行了对比,尝试为宝山铅锌矿化的物质来源及成因提供依据。研究表明,花岗闪长斑岩中浸染状黄铁矿的δ34S值为+1.5‰~+3.5‰,与铅锌矿石硫化物(方铅矿、闪锌矿及黄铁矿)相一致;同时,花岗岩类中钾长石的铅同位素组成206Pb/204Pb、207Pb/204Pb和208Pb/204Pb分别为18.4789~18.7668、15.6835~15.7220和38.7903~39.1035,具有壳源的特征,且与铅锌矿石硫化物的铅同位素分布范围相吻合。宝山矿床的硫、铅同位素特征表明,花岗闪长斑岩应是铅锌矿化的主要硫源及金属来源。宝山矿床铅锌矿石萤石中的流体包裹体具有低温(130~150℃)、低盐度(8%)的特征,可能是岩浆热液演化到晚期的产物。结合已有的有关资料加以对比和分析,研究认为,宝山铅锌矿床的成矿物质应来源于花岗闪长岩的岩浆期后热液,在热液演化晚期迁移到远端地层中沉淀,形成了宝山的主要铅锌矿体。     

The behavior of a multilayered porous thermo-elastic medium with anisotropic thermal diffusivity and permeability

With the aid of integral transform techniques, this paper presents an extended precise integration solution for thermal consolidation problems of a multilayered porous thermo-elastic medium with anisotropic thermal diffusivity and permeability due to a heat source. From the fundamental governing equations, ordinary differential equations are derived by employing Laplace–Hankel transforms. By applying the extended precise integration method, equations in the transformed domain can be solved, and the actual solutions are further obtained by adopting a numerical inverse transformation. The accuracy and feasibility of the proposed theory is demonstrated by contrastive analysis with existing studies. Finally, several examples are carried out to investigate the influence of heat source’s type, axial distance, burial depth of heat source, ratio of thermo-permeability, permeability anisotropy, thermal diffusivity anisotropy and stratification on the thermal consolidation process.     

国内外前寒武纪条带状铁建造研究现状

条带状铁建造(BIFs)主要发育于早前寒武纪时期(3.8~1.8Ga),记录了早期地球演化的重要信息且蕴含丰富的铁矿石资源。本文梳理总结了国内外BIF相关领域的研究认识及存在问题:1统计对比显示,BIF沉积事件与地幔柱、地壳增生等重大地质事件相关;2稀土元素及Nd同位素示踪表明,Fe来源于海水与海底高温热液的混合溶液,其中高温热液与海水比例为1:1000;3 BIFs缺乏负Ce异常且富集重Fe同位素,暗示沉积时古海洋整体处于缺氧环境以避免Fe~(2+)发生氧化;4一些重要科学问题尚未解决,例如Si的主要来源、沉淀机制及条带成因等;5华北克拉通BIFs多形成于约2.54Ga,BIF类型、形成时代与富矿成因等问题有待深入研究。本文认为,加强国内外典型BIFs的对比研究并适当应用现代先进测试技术,有利于探索BIF沉积的精细过程及古老克拉通的早期演化。     

全球冥古宙的研究进展和存在问题

冥古宙是地球上最老的一个地质历史时期,由于缺少可靠的岩石记录一直没有得到国际地学界的重视和承认,到2004年才在建议的国际地层表中使用了冥古宙这一术语,定义从地球形成到出现地球最老岩石这段地球历史。但冥古宙与太古宙没有明确的地质界线,一些研究者提出了不同的年代界线(3.85Ga,4.0Ga,4.03Ga),目前还存在较大分歧。目前已知残存的冥古宙岩石只有两处,一处是加拿大的阿卡斯塔片麻岩(Acasta gneiss)中两个英云闪长岩和一个变质花岗闪长岩。前者锆石U-Pb年龄为4002±4Ma和4012±6Ma,后者为4031±1Ma。另一处是东南极索尼山(Mount Sones)的麻粒岩相英云闪长质片麻岩,已获得U-Pb年龄为3927±10Ma。世界上最老的表壳岩(≥3870Ma)出露在格陵兰。冥古宙年代久远,地球形成最初的600~700Ma的初始岩石经历了陨石撞击、地壳再循环、重熔等改造,甚至再循环到地幔,几乎已经消失殆尽。目前主要以年轻岩石中的碎屑锆石或继承锆石作为桥梁,来追索这些古老锆石原来母岩的类型、特征及成因。3800Ma的碎屑锆石已在全球十多个地区发现,而以西澳伊尔岗克拉通的杰克山最多最全,从3800Ma到4404Ma都有,在3840Ma,3900~3920Ma,4000~4200Ma,4260~4300Ma和4404Ma显示峰值,其中以3900~4200Ma最为发育,4404Ma是目前世界公认的最老碎屑锆石。此外在北美克拉通、南非克拉通、华北克拉通等古老克拉通以及一些年轻造山带中都发现有冥古宙的碎屑锆石,这些锆石是追索冥古宙地质事件的重要桥梁。通过对冥古宙碎屑锆石的研究提出了很多值得重视和进一步研究的课题和内容。包括早期地壳的性质,一些锆石具有与太古宙之后岩浆锆石特征相似的环带结构,因此这些碎屑锆石的母岩大部分被认为相当花岗质,来自老地壳的重熔。冥古宙碎屑锆石的Hf同位素等综合分析表明这些碎屑锆石来源于中性熔岩的结晶,或许表明早期地壳具有中性成分特征。冥古宙锆石的成因也是一个重要的课题,根据锆石中钛的含量、锆石Ti饱和温度计计算的温度以及锆石的一些结构特征,有的研究者提出冥古宙相当一部分碎屑锆石是陨石撞击导致的岩石熔融结晶产生的,是追溯地球早期撞击事件的重要手段。在4300Ma的碎屑锆石中包裹有金刚石和石墨晶体,前者表明锆石的母岩曾处于高压条件,而后者石墨的碳同位素接近有机碳,有人认为可能为生命起源的迹象。多个地区的碎屑锆石的边部Th/U比值低,U-Pb年龄为4000Ma左右,属于变质作用的产物,表明当时地壳已具有一定厚度。冥古宙碎屑锆石的研究提出了很多重要的问题,但是由于资料有限,有些认识还存在矛盾,还需要获得更多实际资料,才能对冥古宙的地质事件过程取得更可靠的科学认识。因此今后应加强可能赋存古老碎屑锆石地区的寻找,并发现更多古老碎屑锆石。对现有的古老碎屑锆石加强综合研究以及各地区的对比研究。