Chemical, Isotopic, and Fluid Inclusion Evidence for the Hydrothermal Alteration of the Footwall Rocks of the BIF-Hosted Iron Ore Deposits in the Hamersley District, Western Australia

Abstract. The petrography, chemical, fluid inclusion and isotope analyses (O, Rb-Sr) were conducted for the shale samples of the Mount McRae Shale collected from the Tom Price, Newman, and Paraburdoo mines in the Hamersley Basin, Western Australia. The Mount McRae Shale at these mines occurs as a footwall unit of the secondary, hematite-rich iron ores derived from the Brockman Iron Formation, one of the largest banded iron formations (BIFs) in the world. Unusually low contents of Na, Ca, and Sr in the shales suggest that these elements were leached away from the shale after deposition. The δ¹⁸O (SMOW) values fall in the range of + 15.0 to +17.9 per mil and show the positive correlation with calculated quartz/sericite ratios of the shale samples. This suggests that the oxygen isotopic compositions of shale samples were homogenized and equilibrated by postdepositional event. The pyrite nodules hosted by shales are often rimmed by thin layers of silica of varying crystallinity. Fluid inclusions in quartz crystals rimming a pyrite nodule show homogenization temperatures ranging from 100 to 240C for 47 inclusions and salinities ranging from 0.4 to 12.3 wt% NaCl equivalent for 18 inclusions. These fluid inclusion data give direct evidence for the hydrothermal activity and are comparable to those of the vein quartz collected from the BIF-derived secondary iron ores (Taylor et al, 2001). The Rb-Sr age for the Mount McRae Shale is 1,952 ± 289 Ma and at least 200 million years younger than the depositional age of the Brockman Iron Formation of ∼ 2.5 Ga in age. All the data obtained in this study are consistent with the suggestion that high temperature hydrothermal fluids were responsible for both the secondary iron ore formation and the alteration of the Mount McRae Shale.     

Simulations of the 2004 lava flow at Etna volcano using the magflow cellular automata model

Since the mechanical properties of lava change over time, lava flows represent a challenge for physically based modeling. This change is ruled by a temperature field which needs to be modeled. MAGFLOW Cellular Automata (CA) model was developed for physically based simulations of lava flows in near real-time. We introduced an algorithm based on the Monte Carlo approach to solve the anisotropic problem. As transition rule of CA, a steady-state solution of Navier-Stokes equations was adopted in the case of isothermal laminar pressure-driven Bingham fluid. For the cooling mechanism, we consider only the radiative heat loss from the surface of the flow and the change of the temperature due to mixture of lavas between cells with different temperatures. The model was applied to reproduce a real lava flow that occurred during the 2004–2005 Etna eruption. The simulations were computed using three different empirical relationships between viscosity and temperature.     

Permian

Summary Late in the Carboniferous Period or early in the Permian ice covered much of Tasmania (Fig. 30b). The sub‐Permian surface had a relief of several thousand feet with particularly low areas near Wynyard and Point Hibbs and high areas near Cradle Mountain, Devonport, Deloraine, Wylds Crag and Ida Bay and a peninsula in eastern Tasmania (Fig. 30a).

The glaciers from an ice centre north‐west of Zeehan diverged about a higher area near Cradle Mountain. One tongue occupied a deep valley near Wynyard and a lobe fanned out south of the high area to occupy parts of northern and central Tasmania and to override some parts of the east coast peninsula.

West of Maydena the ice scoured shell beds and dumped the shell fragments in the till on the Styx Range. Thus the base of the ice may well have been below sea‐level. Carey and Ahmad (1961) suggested that the Wynyard Tillite was deposited below a “wet‐base” glacier. David (1908, p. 278) suggested deposition from “land ice in the form of a piedmont or of an ice‐sheet” but that near Wynyard the ice came down very close to, if not actually to, sea‐level. The extent of the glaciation and the distribution of erratics of western Tasmanian origin in eastern Tasmania make it seem likely that either a piedmont glacier or an ice‐sheet rather than mountain glaciation was involved.

Following retreat of the glaciers the sea covered the till, probably to a considerable depth, eustatic rise of sea‐level being much more rapid than isostatic readjustment.

The Quamby Group is underlain by or passes laterally into thin conglomerates and sandstones in a number of places, but most of the group appears to be of deep water, partially barred basin origin. Marine oil shales accumulated close to islands. Shallowing of the sea during deposition of the upper part of the Quamby Group seems to be indicated by the fauna and increasing sandiness in marginal areas. Instability in the source areas is shown by the presence of turbidity current deposits in the higher parts of the group. The Golden Valley Group, of Upper Sakmarian and perhaps Lower Artinskian age, was deposited in a shallower sea than the Quamby Group but the deposits are more extensive along the east coast peninsula and on the flanks of the Cradle Mountain island. This anomaly may be explained if the rate of deposition exceeded the rate of rise of sea‐level. The sediments of the Golden Valley Group became finer‐grained upwards in most parts of Tasmania probably indicating reduction in relief of the source area. Some instability is indicated by turbidity current deposits. Uplift of source areas in north‐western Tasmania early in Artinskian time resulted in the spreading of sand over the shallow silts of the Golden Valley Group onto the east coast peninsula and over the Cradle Mountain area. The sand formed a wide coastal plain containing lakes and swamps and the sea was restricted to a small gulf in southern Tasmania during the deposition of the lower part of the Mersey Group. During deposition of this group the sea rose once to form a long, narrow gulf extending as far north as Port Sorell and then retreated. This inundation resulted in the development of two cyclothems in many parts of Tasmania.

A little later in Lower Artinskian time the sea rose and covered most of Tasmania except perhaps the far north‐west. This wide transgression probably resulted from down‐warping as an eustatic rise in sea‐level would be expected to produce thickest deposition over the old gulf in southern Tasmania and along the axis of Mersey Group inundation but the zone of thickest Cascades Group crosses these at a high angle. During deposition of the Cascades Group marine life became very abundant in the shallow sea over which a few icebergs floated. During the Artinskian tectonic instability increased as shown by the increasing number of turbidites in the upper part of the Grange Mudstone and the lower part of the Malbina Formation. The sea became less extensive and the source areas in north‐western and north‐eastern Tasmania were uplifted. The zone of thickest deposition of the Malbina Formation trended north‐north‐westerly. The rapid succession of turbidity currents killed the benthonic fauna and it was only during deposition of the upper part of the formation possibly in Lower Kungurian time that life became abundant again in the Hobart area. The sea spread a little over the east coast peninsula and further instability is recorded in the Risdon Sandstone. The resulting turbidity currents killed the benthonic fauna and it never became properly established again in any part of Tasmania during the Permian. A wide shallow sea covered much of Tasmania and was bordered by low source areas during deposition of the Ferntree Group. The axis of greatest thickness had an almost meridional trend and lay west of that of the Malbina Formation. Late in the Permian, probably in the Tartarian, rejuvenation of the source areas, particularly in western Tasmania, and withdrawal of the sea, resulted in deposition of sands and carbonaceous silts of the Cygnet Coal Measures. The zone of greatest thickness was almost parallel to but west of that of the Ferntree Group.

The thickness of the Permian System and the sheet‐like character of many of the members and formations suggest shelf rather than geosynclinal deposition. The average rate of deposition was of the order of 1 ft. in ten thousand years (about 0–003 mm./annum). However, the sediments differ markedly from those on stable shelves in that many of them are poorly‐sorted. Some of the poor sorting may be attributed to deposition from drifting icebergs but some is due to tectonic instability.

Uplift and downwarping and movement of zones of maximum thickness have been deduced above and it is probable that the tectonic instability started as early as Lower Artinskian and it may have started during Sakmarian (upper part of Quamby Group). Maximum instability seems to have occurred in Middle or Upper Artinskian time (Malbina Formation) and it is probably significant that this was a time of considerable orogenic movement in New South Wales (part of the Hunter‐Bowen Orogeny, Osborne, 1950). Progressive westward movement of zones of maximum thickness of units in Upper Permian time seems to have occurred and this again is reminiscent of the situation at the time in New South Wales (Voisey, 1959, p. 201) but seems to have started later. Uplift and development of a major synclinal structure with a trend approximately north‐north‐westerly occurred late in Permian time.     

珠穆朗玛峰北坡东绒布冰川成冰作用的新认识

冰川成冰作用的研究对于选择冰芯钻取点具有重要的科学意义。前人对珠穆朗玛峰北坡冰川成冰作用的研究,由于缺少高海拔区域的实测资料而具有一定的局限性。文章通过1998年东绒布冰川垭口处(6 500 m a. s. l.)11 m冰芯和海拔6 450 m处20 m冰芯剖面的成冰作用过程研究,认识到由于水、热条件的逐年波动,冰川成冰作用也处于变化之中。珠穆朗玛峰北坡东绒布冰川高海拔区域,在一定的水、热条件下(如气温较低和降水量较大等),再冻结-重结晶作用依然占主导地位,该成冰作用至少在垭口部位是有分布的。而一般在气温较高或降水量较少等条件下,冰川的成冰作用则以冷渗浸-重结晶作用为主。     

大兴安岭北段诺敏大山地区早白垩世侵入岩地球化学特征及其构造意义

本文选择大兴安岭北段诺敏大山地区早白垩世侵入岩进行了锆石U-Pb年代学和地球化学研究,探讨该区域侵入岩成因类型、岩浆来源及构造环境。该区侵入岩岩性主要为正长花岗岩、正长花岗斑岩和似斑状正长花岗岩,对其中正长花岗岩样品进行LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb测年表明,正长花岗岩侵位年龄为129.5±0.4 Ma,应为早白垩世岩浆活动的产物,结合区内侵入岩与地层相互接触关系,本区侵入岩形成时代为早白垩世。区内侵入岩具有富硅（SiO2= 67.36%~74.09%）、富碱（K2O+Na2O= 8.88%~9.34%）、高铝（Al2O3= 12.56%~16.15%）,低MgO、TiO2、CaO的特点,属于高钾钙碱性岩石系列;铝饱和指数（A/CNK）为0.94~1.31,为准铝质—过铝质岩石。微量元素富集Rb、U、Th、K等大离子亲石元素,强烈亏损Ti、Nb、Sr、P等高场强元素,具有明显的Eu负异常,属于高分异I型花岗岩。岩石Rb/Sr为0.9~2.0,Sr/Y为4.2~7.2,显示出高Sr、低Y的特点,指示岩浆源区为地壳物质的部分熔融。结合区域研究成果,蒙古—鄂霍茨克构造域在早白垩世之前已结束碰撞,诺敏大山地区早白垩世岩浆活动可能发生在蒙古—鄂霍茨克造山后的伸展环境。     

Pre- and post-drill comparison of the Mount Elbert gas hydrate prospect, Alaska North Slope

In 2006, the United States Geological Survey (USGS) completed a detailed analysis and interpretation of available 2-D and 3-D seismic data, along with seismic modeling and correlation with specially processed downhole well log data for identifying potential gas hydrate accumulations on the North Slope of Alaska. A methodology was developed for identifying sub-permafrost gas hydrate prospects within the gas hydrate stability zone in the Milne Point area. The study revealed a total of 14 gas hydrate prospects in this area.In order to validate the gas hydrate prospecting protocol of the USGS and to acquire critical reservoir data needed to develop a longer-term production testing program, a stratigraphic test well was drilled at the Mount Elbert prospect in the Milne Point area in early 2007. The drilling confirmed the presence of two prominent gas-hydrate-bearing units in the Mount Elbert prospect, and high quality well logs and core data were acquired. The post-drill results indicate pre-drill predictions of the reservoir thickness and the gas-hydrate saturations based on seismic and existing well data were 90% accurate for the upper unit (hydrate unit D) and 70% accurate for the lower unit (hydrate unit C), confirming the validity of the USGS approach to gas hydrate prospecting. The Mount Elbert prospect is the first gas hydrate accumulation on the North Slope of Alaska identified primarily on the basis of seismic attribute analysis and specially processed downhole log data. Post-drill well log data enabled a better constraint of the elastic model and the development of an improved approach to the gas hydrate prospecting using seismic attributes.     

近53a珠峰地区气温降水变化特征分析

利用聂拉木和定日国家气象观测站1967~2019年月气温和降水资料,开展了珠穆朗玛峰（简称珠峰）地区季、年气温和降水变化特征分析及变化趋势检验。结果表明：近53a珠峰地区季、年平均气温呈显著升高趋势,冬季增温幅度最大,年平均气温在1997年之前为波动下降而1997年之后则是波动增加,进入21世纪后气温升高愈发明显且在冬季尤为突出;珠峰地区1967~2019年降水量呈波动变化但变化趋势不显著;珠峰地区气温和降水体现出较强的局地性差异,其南、北坡气温和降水呈现出不同的变化特征。     

Genesis of the Mamut Porphyry Copper Deposit, Sabah, East Malaysia

Abstract: The Mamut deposit of Sabah, East Malaysia, is a porphyry type Cu‐Au deposit genetically related to a quartz monzonite (“adamellite”) porphyry stock associated with upper Miocene Mount Kinabalu plutonism. The genesis of the Mamut deposit is discussed based on petrology of the intrusives in the Mount Kinabalu area combined with ore– and alteration–petrography, fluid inclusion and sulfur isotope studies. Groundmass of the adamellite porphyry at Mamut is rich in K which suggests vapor transport of alkaline elements during the mineralizing magmatic process, while the groundmass of the post‐ore “granodiorite” porphyry at Mamut contains small amounts of normative corundum suggesting depletion in alkaline elements at the root zone of the magma column. Sub‐dendritic tremolitic amphibole rims on hornblende phenocrysts in the Mamut adamellite porphyry suggest interaction between the mineralizing magma and the exsolved fluids. Occurrences of clinopyroxene microphenocrysts and pseudomor‐phic aggregates of shredded biotite and clinopyroxene after hornblende phenocrysts in the barren intrusives imply lower water fugacity and decreasing in water fugacity, respectively. Compositional gap between the core of hornblende phenocrysts and the tremolitic amphibole rims and those in the groundmass of the Mamut adamellite porphyry suggests a decrease in pressure. Higher X_Mg (=Mg/(Mg+Fe) atomic ratio) in the tremolitic amphibole rims in the Mamut adamellite porphyry compared to those of the barren intrusions suggests high oxygen fugacity. High halogen contents of igneous hydrous minerals such as amphiboles, biotite and apatite in the Mamut adamellite porphyry suggest the existence of highly saline fluids during the intrusion and solidification of the mineralizing magma. Fluid inclusions found in quartz veinlet stockworks are characterized by abundant hypersaline polyphase inclusions associated with subordinate amounts of immiscible gaseous vapor. Both Cu and Au are dispersed in disseminated and quartz stockwork ores. Chalcopyrite and pyrrhotite as well as magnetite are the principal ore minerals in the biotitized disseminated ores. Primary assemblage of intermediate solid solution (iss) and pyrrhotite converted to the present assemblage of chalcopyrite and pyrrhotite during cooling. Subsequent to biotitization, quartz veinlet stockworks formed associated with retrograde chlorite alteration. The Cu‐Fe sul–fides associated with stockwork quartz veinlet are chalcopyrite and pyrite. Overlapping Pb and Zn and subsequent Sb mineralizations were spatially controlled by NNE‐trending fractures accompanying the phyllic and advanced argillic alteration envelope. Sulfur isotopic composition of ore sulfides are homogeneous (about +2%) throughout the mineralization stages. These are identical to those of the magmatic sulfides of Mount Kinabalu adamellitic rocks.     

First recorded eruption of Mount Belinda volcano (Montagu Island), South Sandwich Islands

The MODVOLC satellite monitoring system has revealed the first recorded eruption of Mount Belinda volcano, on Montagu Island in the remote South Sandwich Islands. Here we present some initial qualitative observations gleaned from a collection of satellite imagery covering the eruption, including MODIS, Landsat 7 ETM+, ASTER, and RADARSAT-1 data. MODVOLC thermal alerts indicate that the eruption started sometime between 12 September and 20 October 2001, with low-intensity subaerial explosive activity from the islands summit peak, Mount Belinda. By January 2002 a small lava flow had been emplaced near the summit, and activity subsequently increased to some of the highest observed levels in August 2002. Observations from passing ships in February and March 2003 provided the first visual confirmation of the eruption. ASTER images obtained in August 2003 show that the eruption at Mount Belinda entered a new phase around this time, with fresh lava effusion into the surrounding icefield. MODIS radiance trends also suggest that the overall activity level increased significantly after July 2003. Thermal anomalies continued to be observed in MODIS imagery in early 2004, indicating a prolonged low-intensity eruption and the likely establishment of a persistent summit lava lake, similar to that observed on neighboring Saunders Island in 2001. Our new observations also indicate that lava lake activity continues on Saunders Island.Editorial responsibility: J. Gilbert     

Seismic image of the Mount Spurr magmatic system

 The three-dimensional P-wave velocity structure of Mount Spurr is determined to depths of 10 km by tomographic inversion of 3,754 first-arriving P-wave times from local earthquakes recorded by a permanent network of 11 seismographs. Results show a prominent low-velocity zone extending from the surface to 3–4 km below sea level beneath the southeastern flank of Crater Peak, spatially coincident with a geothermal system. P-wave velocities in this low-velocity zone are approximately 20% slower than those in the shallow crystalline basement rocks. Beneath Crater Peak an approximately 3-km-wide zone of relative low velocities correlates with a near-vertical band of seismicity, suggestive of a magmatic conduit. No large low-velocity zone indicative of a magma chamber occurs within the upper 10 km of the crust. These observations are consistent with petrologic and geochemical studies suggesting that Crater Peak magmas originate in the lower crust or upper mantle and have a short residence time in the shallow crust. Earthquakes relocated using the three-dimensional velocity structure correlate well with surface geology and other geophysical observations; thus, they provide additional constraints on the kinematics of the Mount Spurr magmatic system. Received: 4 December 1997 / Accepted: 27 February 1998