Multiple levels of magma storage during the 1980 summer eruptions of Mount St. Helens, WA

Transitions in eruptive style—explosive to effusive, sustained to pulsatory—are a common aspect of volcanic activity and present a major challenge to volcano monitoring efforts. A classic example of such transitions is provided by the activity of Mount St. Helens, WA, during 1980, where a climactic Plinian event on May 18 was followed by subplinian and vulcanian eruptions that became increasing pulsatory with time throughout the summer, finally progressing to episodic growth of a lava dome. Here we use variations in the textures, glass compositions and volatile contents of melt inclusions preserved in pyroclasts produced by the summer 1980 eruptions to determine conditions of magma ascent and storage that may have led to observed changes in eruptive activity. Five different pyroclast types identified in pyroclastic flow and fall deposits produced by eruptions in June 12, July 22 and August 7, 1980, provide evidence for multiple levels of magma storage prior to each event. Highly vesicular clasts have H₂O-rich (4.5–5.5 wt%) melt inclusions and lack groundmass microlites or hornblende reaction rims, characteristics that require magma storage at P≥160 MPa until shortly prior to eruption. All other clast types have groundmass microlites; P_H20 estimated from both H₂O-bearing melt inclusions and textural constraints provided by decompression experiments suggest pre-eruptive storage pressures of ∼75, 40, and 10 MPa. The distribution of pyroclast types within and between eruptive deposits can be used to place important constraints on eruption mechanisms. Fall and flow deposits from June 12, 1980, lack highly vesicular, microlite-free pyroclasts. This eruption was also preceded by a shallow intrusion on June 3, as evidenced by a seismic crisis and enhanced SO₂ emissions. Our constraints suggest that magma intruded to a depth of ≤4 km beneath the crater floor fed the June eruption. In contrast, eruptions of July and August, although shorter in duration and smaller in volume, erupted deep volatile-rich magma. If modeled as a simple cylinder, these data require a step-wise decrease in effective conduit diameter from 40–50 m in May and June to 8–12 m in July and August. The abundance of vesicular (intermediate to deep) clast types in July and August further suggests that this change was effected by narrowing the shallower part of the conduit, perhaps in response to solidification of intruded magma remaining in the shallow system after the June eruption. Eruptions from July to October were distinctly pulsatory, transitioning between subplinian and vulcanian in character. As originally suggested by Scandone and Malone (1985), a growing mismatch between the rate of magma ascent and magma disruption explains the increasingly pulsatory nature of the eruptions through time. Recent fragmentation experiments Spieler et al. (2004) suggest this mismatch may have been aided by the multiple levels at which magma was stored (and degassed) prior to these events.Editorial responsibility: J Stix     

Ground deformation of Papandayan volcano before, during, and after the 2002 eruption as detected by GPS surveys

Papandayan is an A-type active volcano located in the southern part of Garut Regency, about 70 km southeast of Bandung, Indonesia. Its earliest recorded eruption, and the most violent and devastating outburst, occurred in 1772. The latest eruptions occurred in the period from 11 November–8 December 2002, and consisted of phreatic, freatomagmatic, and magmatic types of eruption. During the latest eruption period, GPS surveys were conducted at several points inside and around the crater in a radial mode, using the reference point located at the Papandayan observatory, about 10 km from the crater. At the points closest to the erupting craters, GPS displacements up to a few decimeters were detected, whereas at the points outside the crater, the displacements were at the centimeter level. The magnitude of displacements observed at each point also showed a temporal variation according to the eruption characteristics. The results show that deformation during eruption tends to be local, e.g. just around the crater. The pressure source is difficult to be properly modeled from GPS results, due to the limited GPS data available and differences in topography, geological structure, and/or rheology related to each GPS station.     

景谷民乐火山灰流型铜矿地质及成因

民乐浸染状铜矿产于中三叠统灰流型富钠质熔结凝灰岩中。矿区火山岩主体为细碧角斑岩系，矿床的形成与陆内再生地槽海相火山活动及其4后的热液蚀变作用密切相关。矿体分布明显受火山岩岩性、岩相、层位及构造控制，成因上与火山喷发和爆发作用有关。矿床受后期火山热液、次生富集改造后富化明显。     

A COMPARATIVE STUDY ON THE CHARACTERISTICS OF TWO STAGES OF FALLOUT PUMICES DEPOSITS FROM THE MILLENNIUM ERUPTION OF TIANCHI VOLCANO IN CHANGBAISHAN AREA

Tianchi volcano in Changbaishan area is located at the border between China and Democratic People's Republic of Korea, and is one of the most dangerous volcanoes in China. It has experienced several explosive eruptions in late Pleistocene and Holocene, i.e. 50000aBP eruption, 946 AD eruption, 1668 AD eruption, 1702 AD eruption, 1903 AD eruption. Especially, the 946 AD eruption(also known as "Millennium eruption")of this volcano is considered to be one of the largest volcanic eruptions in the world in the past 2000a. The eruption history and strata sequence of Tianchi volcano have long been the focus of attention. The stratigraphic unit division of fallout deposits in the past millennium is controversial, especially for the heterogeneous trachytic pumices(erupted from the Yuanchi stage)above the off-white pumices(erupted from the Chifeng stage). In this paper, through the detailed field exploration and strata comparation, it was found that there was no depositional interval between the two stage eruptions, or the interval was not long, and thus, it is believed that two stages of fallout pumice should be classified into the Millennium eruption. The off-white fallout pumices in Chifeng stage are relatively homogeneous, with angular shape, normal grading and good sorting. The median size(Md_Φ)and the sorting coefficient(σ_Φ)of Chifeng pumice are in the range of -4.25~-1.3 and 0.93~1.53, respectively. The eruption of Yuanchi stage is in pulsing pattern, and the strata show interbedding of rich khaki pumice layer and rich black pumice layer. The pumices with angular shape show inconspicuous grain grading and good sorting. The median size(Md_Φ)and the sorting coefficient(σ_Φ)of Yuanchi pumice are in the range of -2.55~-0.6 and 1~1.68, respectively. Both the granularities of the pumice particles from two stages are normally distributed and fall into the air-fall field in the median diameter versus sorting diagram. The pumices from 50000aBP and pyroclastic flow of Millennium eruption were also shown in the diagram. Phenocrysts in pumices are mainly feldspar and pyroxene, but the phenocrysts with obvious resorbed characteristic in Yuanchi black pumice are bigger, and the phenocryst contents are a little higher than those in others. Feldspar content in off-white pumice in Chifeng stage was 0.24%~1.77%, that in khaki pumice in Yuanchi stage was 0.2%~7.5%, and that in black pumice in Yuanchi stage was 3.02%~8.0%. The phenocrysts in Chifeng pumice are broken, which represents more violent explosion. The vesicles inside the pumice also reflect the intensity of the eruption. The Chifeng pumices have large, continuous vesicles and thin vesicle walls. The Yuanchi khaki pumices have continuous vesicles but thicker vesicle wall than the Chifeng pumices. The vesicularity is the lowest and the vesicle walls are the thickest in the black pumices in Yuanchi stage, indicating the eruption strength become weaker from Chifeng stage to Yuanchi stage. The Chifeng pumices with SiO₂ content of 69.12~72.71wt%, K₂O content of 4.33~4.52wt%, Na₂O content of 5.26~5.39wt%, Al₂O₃ content of 10.32~11.99wt%, CaO content of 0.29~0.95wt%, MgO content of 0.11~0.51wt%, TiO₂ content of 0.23~0.43wt% are comendite in composition. The pumices from 50000aBP eruption are comendite in composition, and their SiO₂ content(65.56~68.28wt%)is slightly lower than Chifeng pumices. The Yuanchi khaki pumices with SiO₂ content of 62.14~63.29wt%, K₂O content of 5.35~5.7wt%, Na₂O content of 5.35~5.62wt%, Al₂O₃ content of 15.00~15.59wt%, CaO content of 1.06~1.61wt%, MgO content of 0.25~0.57wt%, TiO₂ content of 0.4~0.64wt% belong to trachyte in composition, and are close to the composition of the black pumices on the Tianwen Peak. The Yuanchi black pumices are also trachyte in composition, but have obviously lower SiO₂(59.51~60.59wt%), K₂O(4.39~4.84wt%), and Na₂O(4.94~5.08wt%)content, and higher Al₂O₃(15.81~16.42wt%), CaO(2.78~3.66wt%), MgO(1.43~1.9wt%), TiO₂(1.04~1.4wt%)content than the khaki pumices. The above results show that the eruptive intensity of the Yuanchi stage is weaker than that of the Chifeng stage and the several magmatic compositions of pumices from the Millennium eruption reveal a complex magma system under the Tianchi volcano. The magma layers with different compositions may exist in the magma chamber contemporaneously. At Chifeng stage, only the upper comendite magma erupted, but the magma below erupted in the pulsing pattern at the Yuanchi stage.     

TEPHRA RECORD FROM QUANYANG PEAT OF THE CHANGBAISHAN MILLENNIUM ERUPTION

Tephra, usually produced by explosive eruptions, is deposited rapidly, hence, it can serve as a distinctive and widespread synchronous marker horizon correlating terrestrial, marine and ice core records. The tephra from Changbaishan Millennium eruption, a widely distributed tephra, is an important marker bed across the Japan Sea, Japan Islands and even in the Greenland ice cores 9000km away from volcanic vent. In this study, a discrete tephra was identified in the Quanyang peat~45km northeast to the Changbaishan volcano. Radiocarbon ¹⁴ C dating on the plant remains constrains an age of 886-1013calAD(95.4%)to the tephra layer, which can correspond to the Millennium eruption of Changbaishan in time. In addition, there was no similar volcanic eruption in the surrounding areas except Changbaishan at the same time. This tephra shows rhyolitic glass shards major element compositions similar to those rhyolitic tephra from Millennium eruption. This study illustrates that tephra from Millennium eruption has been transported to Quanyang peat~45km northwest to the Changbaishan volcano. Additionally, the diameter of the pumice lapilli is up to 0.3cm, implying that the tephra must be transported more distal away from Quanyang peat and formed a widely distributed isochronic layer. Glass geochemistry of the Quanyang tephra, different from the distal tephra recorded at Sihailongwan, Japan, and Greenland ice, shows a close affinity to the pyroclastic flow deposits of the Millennium eruption while not from fall deposits. This may indicate that distribution of the Millennium eruption of Changbaishanin in different directions may be controlled by different stages of eruption. This layer with well-defined annual results can be used to optimize the chronological framework of the corresponding sedimentary environment, thus facilitating more accurate discussion of corresponding environmental changes, which can achieve the contrast of the ancient climate records in the whole Northeast China-Japan and arctic regions.     

长白山天池火山千年大喷发期后火山泥石流沉积特征及其源-汇响应关系

源于长白山天池地区的火山泥石流沉积可分为粗碎屑岩块(岩屑)泥石流和细碎屑浮岩泥石流,它们沿二道白河和松花江水系搬运的路径为从距天池火山口40km的三合水电站经过丰满大坝(360km)和吉林市(380km)到小白旗屯(450km),形成广泛的沉积区域。这两类火山泥石流的沉积成因有两种解释:一是形成于千年大喷发同期,是由一次性洪水事件搬运和沉积形成的;二是形成于千年大喷发期后经过多次搬运和沉积的产物。两个模式的共同问题是都没有考虑天池当时是否有水及其蓄水过程。后一模式在某种程度上,还回避了导致岩屑与浮岩两类泥石流频繁互层的沉积物源和水动力条件以及二者的转换机制,而这恰恰是关于泥石流沉积成因的基本要素。通过重新研究火山泥石流经典剖面(位于天池西北57.73km的水田村),作者发现本区火山泥石流沉积存在明显的物源剥蚀区与沉积堆积区的反剖面关系。即无论是粒径32～500mm的粗碎屑还是0.0625～16mm的细碎屑,成分自下而上(或沉积早期到晚期)呈现规律性变化:剖面下部的碎屑成分以浮岩为主(浮岩在物源区位于顶部),向上粗面岩和玄武岩明显增多(在源区它们位于浮岩之下),而沉积序列上部的碎屑成分是在物源区处于较深层位的岩脉辉绿岩和基底流纹岩。整个序列碎屑成分的沉积分异特征明显。沉积构造和岩相组合特征显示,该火山泥石流剖面的下部和上部碎屑粒度细、分选较好、成层性好、水平状层理发育,主要表现为环境较为稳定的以地面径流为主的河流相和末端扇相背景沉积;中部粒度粗、成层性差、主要表现为突发性洪水作用导致的洪积相事件沉积。沉积序列中频繁出现的冲刷面构造指示水流强度曾出现周期性的快速增加。自下而上冲刷面规模由小变大再变小,指示水流强度由弱变强再变弱。为了探讨天池的积水条件和蓄水过程,作者基于达西定律和质量守恒原理,模拟计算降水量、蒸发量、地表径流量、火山机构整体的平均渗透率和天池积水速率之间的关系。结果显示,当天池火山机构平均渗透率高于6m D(毫达西)时,天池地区降水量减蒸发量即使高达2000mm/y,水亦会全部渗流而出,因此天池不存在积水环境。当降水量减蒸发量小于1500mm/y时,则天池火山体平均渗透率需要小于4m D,天池才可能在200年之内集满现今的水量。当天池降水量减蒸发量小于1000mm/y时,天池火山体平均渗透率需要小于2.5m D,天池才可能在200年之内集满现今的水量。将水田村火山泥石流沉积序列与天池蓄水过程计算结果加以对比,我们提出本区火山泥石流沉积序列的另一种成因解释:(1)这是形成于千年大喷发之后的以地面径流或河流为主的背景沉积与洪水导致的突发性事件沉积互层的序列;上部和下部的细碎屑层主要表现为背景沉积,中部的粗碎屑岩块泥石流主要表现为洪流事件沉积。(2)下部的背景沉积可能对应于天池千年大喷发之后的持续积水过程,时间可能不少于200年;而上部的背景沉积则对应于本区的水系和地貌逐渐稳定并接近于现今条件的稳定型河流沉积。结合天池北坡和西坡古老树木年轮指示的沙松冷杉生长年代(公元1749-1768)同时考虑松柏类植物对水系和地貌稳定性较为敏感等因素,推测上部沉积环境趋于稳定的时间应该不晚于公元十八世纪初。     

全球生态系统的状况与趋势

简要介绍了千年生态系统评估（MA）项目状况与趋势工作组的报告《生态系统与人类福祉：现状与趋势》中的第3部分，即“对提供生态系统服务的各类系统的评估”。评估结果表明，在20世纪的后50年，全球生态系统的变化幅度和速度皆超过了人类历史上有记录的任何一个相等时间段的情况，目前人类活动实际上已经显著地改变了地球上的所有生态系统。这些变化主要表现在：① 大约1/4的地球陆地表层已经转变为垦殖系统，而且在1950年之后的30年中，转变为农田的土地面积比1700—1850年这150年间转变的总和还要多；②全球大多数的重要流域，由于水资源利用造成的栖息地丧失与破碎化，以及由于养分、沉积物、盐分及有毒物质造成的污染，已经显著地破坏了河流、湖泊和盐水沼泽等湿地生态系统的功能与生物多样性；③ 旱区系统存在着水资源匮乏、过度垦殖、过度放牧和过度砍伐树木等问题，生态状况尤其令人担忧；④ 栖息地的丧失与破碎化、过度开发、污染以及气候变化，已经对海滨系统造成了严重的生态威胁；⑤ 不可持续的农业开发模式，已经严重地破坏了热带森林生态系统的结构与功能。     

天池火山千年大喷发的岩浆混合作用与喷发机制初步探讨

根据岩浆演化和地球物理深部探测，天池火山之下存在地壳和地幔双层岩浆房。地幔玄武质岩浆向地壳岩浆房的补给，保持了天池火山逾百万年持续不断的喷发活动。本文从天池火山千年大喷发浮岩中的玄武质粗安岩一粗安岩角砾和条带状岩浆的岩相学、矿物学和岩石化学研究，提出地幔的粗面玄武质岩浆向地壳岩浆房的注入，触发千年大喷发，初步探讨了天池火山千年大喷发的岩浆混合作用与喷发机制。     

Framing the application of adaptation pathways for rural livelihoods and global change in eastern Indonesian islands

In developing countries adaptation responses to climate and global change should be integrated with human development to generate no regrets, co-benefit strategies for the rural poor, but there are few examples of how to achieve this. The adaptation pathways approach provides a potentially useful decision-making framework because it aims to steer societies towards sustainable futures by accounting for complex systems, uncertainty and contested multi-stakeholder arenas, and by maintaining adaptation options. Using Nusa Tenggara Barat Province, Indonesia, as an example we consider whether generic justifications for adaptation pathways are tenable in the local context of climate and global change, rural poverty and development. Interviews and focus groups held with a cross-section of provincial leaders showed that the causes of community vulnerability are indeed highly complex and dynamic, influenced by 20 interacting drivers, of which climate variability and change are only two. Climate change interacts with population growth and ecosystem degradation to reduce land, water and food availability. Although poverty is resilient due to corruption, traditional institutions and fatalism, there is also considerable system flux due to decentralisation, modernisation and erosion of traditional culture. Together with several thresholds in drivers, potential shocks and paradoxes, these characteristics result in unpredictable system trajectories. Decision-making is also contested due to tensions around formal and informal leadership, corruption, community participation in planning and female empowerment. Based on this context we propose an adaptation pathways approach which can address the proximate and systemic causes of vulnerability and contested decision-making. Appropriate participatory processes and governance structures are suggested, including integrated livelihoods and multi-scale systems analysis, scenario planning, adaptive co-management and ‘livelihood innovation niches’. We briefly discuss how this framing of adaptation pathways would differ from one in the developed context of neighbouring Australia, including the influence of the province's island geography on the heterogeneity of livelihoods and climate change, the pre-eminence and rapid change of social drivers, and the necessity to ‘leap-frog’ the Millennium Development Goals by mid-century to build adaptive capacity for imminent climate change impacts.     

东川稀矿山式铁铜矿控矿条件新认识

落因背斜两翼地层构造、地层岩相、含矿的差异性,证明背斜轴部存在生长断层。凡有长断层出现,因民组、落雪组岩相剧变,伴随碱性火山喷发-喷溢活动形成细碧岩、基性熔岩、角砾岩之处成为成矿必要条件。