Chinese and multilateral development finance in the power sector

Public developmental institutions are pivotal in shaping the contours of the electricity sector of the developing world and its associated greenhouse gas emissions pathways. However, we have a fragmented and incomplete picture of the evolution of their investments over time and space. This is particularly the case for the recent rise of various Chinese Developmental Institutions (CDIs) for which infrastructure investment estimates range in the trillions under China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) and for which data is mostly not publicly disclosed. We address this gap in two ways: first, we compile and analyze a novel dataset that draws on commercial data tracking, publicly available datasets, and more than 1,000 supporting documents to match financial transactions by the main CDIs and traditional Multilateral Development Banks (MDBs) to power plant projects worldwide. This allows us to conduct a quantitative, comparative analysis of the role of CDIs and MDBs to understand the relative size, technology, and country focus of such investments in the period 1999–2020. Second, we complement the quantitative dataset with 39 expert interviews to shed light on the drivers behind the Chinese investments, with a particular focus on coal projects. The analysis shows that CDIs have rapidly emerged as the largest public finance provider for the electricity sector in the developing world. We also find that, in contrast with the increasingly green BRI rhetoric, the technology portfolio of CDI investments in power plants is still heavily dominated by coal plants. Over time, however, CDIs have increasingly supported more efficient coal plants and increased the share of their portfolio supporting non-hydro renewables and supported a growing number of projects jointly with MDBs. Steering China’s bilateral coal finance flows through international efforts into a more sustainable direction to meet climate goals will require careful consideration of a set of drivers and enablers of the involvement of CDIs and recipient countries in coal projects, which we discuss, as well as of the role of other finance providers, including traditional MDBs.     

Radiocarbon ages of Holocene Pelado,Guespalapa, and Chichinautzin scoria cones,south of Mexico City: implications for archaeology and future hazards

Pelado, Guespalapa, and Chichinautzin monogenetic scoria cones located within the Sierra del Chichinautzin Volcanic Field (SCVF) at the southern margin of Mexico City were dated by the radiocarbon method at 10,000, 2,800–4,700, and 1,835 years b.p., respectively. Most previous research in this area was concentrated on Xitle scoria cone, whose lavas destroyed and buried the pre-Hispanic town of Cuicuilco around 1,665±35 years b.p. The new dates indicate that the recurrence interval for monogenetic eruptions in the central part of the SCVF and close to the vicinity of Mexico City is <2,500 years. If the entire SCVF is considered, the recurrence interval is <1,700 years. Based on fieldwork and Landsat imagery interpretation a geologic map was produced, morphometric parameters characterizing the cones and lava flows determined, and the areal extent and volumes of erupted products estimated. The longest lava flow was produced by Guespalapa and reached 24 km from its source; total areas covered by lava flows from each eruption range between 54 (Chichinautzin) and 80 km² (Pelado); and total erupted volumes range between 1 and 2 km³/cone. An average eruption rate for the entire SCVF was estimated at 0.6 km³/1,000 years. These findings are of importance for archaeological as well as volcanic hazards studies in this heavily populated region.Editorial responsibility: J. Gilbert     

Determination of the rotation curve for stars of the Gould Belt using bottlinger's formulas

Based on the Hipparcos catalog and the radial velocities of stars published to date, we perform a kinematic analysis of OB stars. Parameters of the general Galactic rotation were determined from distant OB stars. We used the residual velocities of stars corrected for the general Galactic rotation to study the proper rotation of nearby OB stars. Geometrical characteristics of the Gould Belt were estimated by analyzing its kinematic parameters. We obtained parameters of peculiar solar motion as well as parameters of the proper rotation, expansion, and contraction for rotation around both the Galactic z axis and an axis perpendicular to the plane of symmetry of the disk. Kinematic parameters of the proper differential rotation were found for two age groups of nearby OB stars. Almost all of the nearby OB stars were shown to rotate in the same direction as the Galactic rotation. We constructed rotation curves.     

An Eburnean base metal source for sediment-hosted zinc-lead deposits in Neoproterozoic units of Namibia: Lead isotopic and geochemical evidence

The lead isotopic composition of galena from the Neoproterozoic sediment-hosted Zn-Pb sulphide deposit at Rosh Pinah and the oxidised Zn deposit at Skorpion in the Pan-African Gariep Belt, southwestern Namibia, as well as that of galena from minor occurrences in the wider Rosh Pinah ore province was investigated and is compared with that of other major sediment-hosted base metal ore deposits hosted by Neoproterozoic strata in southwestern Africa and Brazil. The isotope data were supplemented by a geochemical provenance study of the argillitic host rock to the Rosh Pinah deposit and its stratigraphic equivalents. The pre-orogenic Rosh Pinah deposit and the inferred progenitor for the secondary Skorpion deposits have very similar Pb isotopic compositions. In contrast, syn-orogenic deposits (e.g. Tsumeb-type) show a larger proportion of radiogenic Pb from the country rocks that were infiltrated by orogenic ore fluids.In all examples studied, the ore Pb has elevated ²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁴Pb ratios compared to Pb that evolved according to average crustal Pb growth models. The isotopic composition of the ore Pb is in agreement with that of the oldest crustal component known from the pre-Gariep basement, i.e. an Eburnean (c. 2.0 Ga) volcanic arc, best preserved in the Richtersveld Terrane, that represents the largest volume of post-Archaean juvenile crust in southern Africa. Erosion of that arc provided the main sediment source for the metasedimentary siliciclastic host to the Rosh Pinah deposit. Derivation of the Pb, and by analogy Zn, from this Eburnean volcanic arc is therefore inferred for the formation of Rosh Pinah-type syn-rift, early diagenetic replacement mineralisation.The calculated ₂- and ₂-values for the Rosh Pinah ore province (around 10.2 and 42, respectively) are higher than predicted by conventional Pb crustal growth models and are similar to those found in the wider region of southern Africa (Otavi Mountain Land) and eastern Brazil. The obtained data highlight not only that calculated Pb model ages may have no geochronological significance but might also point to a common crustal evolution of this part of SW-Gondwana.Editorial handling: M. Chiaradia     

Geochronology and Tectonic Evolution of Karimnagar and Bhopalpatnam Granulite Belts, Central India

The Karimnagar Granulite Belt (KGB) and the Bhopalpatnam Granulite Belt (BGB) occur along both flanks of the Pranhita-Godavari (PG) rift basin. We present a state-of-the-art overview on the geochronological and tectonic aspects of these belts and surrounding geologic domains, and report new age data on zircon, monazite and uraninite recovered from granulite facies assemblages from KGB and BGB based on electron microprobe analyses (EPMA). Zircons from KGB charnockites show core ages of up to 3.1 Ga mantled by rims of 2.6 Ga. Zircons from BGB have 1.9 Ga cores mantled by 1.7 Ga rims. Zircons with core ages of 1.6 to 1.7 Ga in BGB rocks suggest new growth at this time. Monazites and uranitite from KGB show clear peaks with well-defined ages in the narrow range between 2.42±0.08 Ga and 2.47°0.03 Ga. Rims of monazite show mean age of 2.21±0.08 Ga. Monazites from BGB define sharp linear trend in PbO vs. ThO₂* diagram delineating a clear isochron with age of 1.59±0.03 Ga. Age data from KGB and BGB presented in this report negate current models linking these terrains to "Godavari Granulite Belt" and considering them as single and contemporaneous entity. The mid-Archaean to early Palaeoproterozoic signature recognized from KGB is totally missing in BGB. On the other hand, KGB rocks do not record any evidence for major Mesoproterozoic thermal regime. The two granulite belts shouldering the PG rift basin have therefore evolved in different times under distinct P-T conditions and thermal regimes. Our results have important implications in evaluating models of supercontinent assemblies, particularly the older assemblies of Ur, Columbia and Rodinia. While tectonothermal events in KGB broadly match with those of East Dharwar, we propose that BGB represents a 1.6 Ga collisional mobile belt between the Bastar and the Dharwar cratons. The 1.6 Ga collisional mobile belt at the southern margin of the Bastar craton was superposed by rift activity along the PG basin at 1.5 Ga. This sequence of events goes against the existence of a 3.0 Ga old contiguous assembly of Ur but closely matches with the history of accretion and break-up of the Columbia. Further, parts of the PG basin located away from the influence of the Eastern Ghats Mobile Belt, neither recorded any Grenville ages (1.0 Ga) corresponding to the Rodinia accretion nor late Pan-African ages (ca. 550 Ma) relating to the Gondwana amalgamation, indicating that the region did not witness any of these younger tectonic events.     

A Jurassic garnet-bearing granitic pluton from NE China showing tetrad REE patterns

NE China is characterized by the massive distribution of Phanerozoic granitoids. Most of them are of I- and A-type granites, whereas S-type granites are rarely documented. The present work deals with the Dongqing pluton, a small granitic body emplaced in the southern Zhangguangcai Range. The pluton comprises a two-mica (±garnet) granite and a garnet-bearing muscovite granite; the latter occurs as veins in the former. The pluton shows a gradational contact with the surrounding host granites. Rb–Sr and Sm–Nd isotope analyses on whole-rocks and minerals reveal that the two types of granites were emplaced synchronously at about 160 Ma. The pluton was emplaced coeval with the surrounding I-type granitic pluton, and had a rapid cooling history. It is characterized by an initial Sr isotopic ratio of 0.706, slightly negative _Nd(T) values (−0.5 to −1.9) and young depleted-mantle model ages (970–1090 Ma). This suggests that the parent magma originated from partial melting of relatively juvenile crust, which is largely compatible with the general scenario for much of the Phanerozoic granitoids emplaced in the Central Asian Orogenic Belt.Geochemically, the granites of the Dongqing pluton are peraluminous, with a Shand Index (molar ratio A/CNK) of 1.0–1.1 for the two-mica granites and 1.2–1.3 for the garnet-bearing granites. All the garnet-bearing granites and some of the two-mica granites show tetrad REE patterns (=tetrad group), whereas most two-mica granites show normal granitic REE patterns (=normal group). The normal group granites exhibit depletion in Nb, Ta, P and Ti in spidergrams, and generally weak positive Eu anomalies in REE patterns. By contrast, the tetrad group granites manifest depletion in Ba, Nb, Ta, Sr, P, and Ti and significant negative Eu anomalies. The trace element data constrain the parental magmas to having undergone extensive magmatic differentiation. During their late stage magmatic evolution, intense interaction of residual melts with aqueous hydrothermal fluids resulted in the non-CHARAC (charge and radius controlled) trace element behavior and the tetrad effect in REE distribution patterns. This, in turn, leads to the invalidation of the commonly used tectonic discrimination criteria derived from trace element abundances of normal granites. In view of this and previous studies, we conclude that there were probably no S-type granites produced in NE China during the Phanerozoic. Consequently, weathered sedimentary material did not play an important role in the genesis of the strongly peraluminous granites in the Zhangguangcai Range.     

Late orogenic magmatism and sedimentation within Late Carboniferous to Early Permian basins in the Balkan terrane (Bulgaria): geodynamic implications

The orogenic Balkanid belt, which developed between the Moesian Plate and the Moravian-Rhodopi-Thracian Massifs, was affected by the Late Carboniferous and Early Permian opening of W-E oriented graben structures. The progressive tectonic rejuvenation of the basins is demonstrated by the deposition of repeated regional sedimentary cycles, associated with volcanism that was mostly localised along the tectonic boundaries, in an intramontane setting.The Late Carboniferous volcanism is represented by rhyodacitic explosive products and hyaloclastites, and by andesitic flows. During the Early Permian, subvolcanic rhyodacitic and rhyolitic bodies and the explosive products prevailed in the western sectors, whereas rhyolitic ignimbrites occur to the east.The tectonically active basins are interpreted due to late orogenic collapse, and the alternation of extensional tectonics and minor compressional phases is consistent with the regional transtensional regime, active along the Variscan suture of Pangaea. The volcanic activity associated with the evolution of the basins matches the petrogenetic features and the evolution from early dacitic – andesitic to late rhyolitic activity in the Southern European segment of the Variscan system.These Late Carboniferous-Early Permian sedimentary and tectono-magmatic events in Bulgaria are characterized, and compared with the homologous Permo-Carboniferous sequences along some western European segments of the Variscan belt.     

A Late Pleistocene lacustrine transgression in the Fehmarn Belt,southwestern Baltic Sea

In order to reconstruct the late Pleistocene seismic stratigraphy, 550 km of high-density 3.5 kHz sub-bottom seismic-reflection profiles were recorded within a 70 km² area in the narrow offshore border zone between Germany and Denmark. A depositional unit 3 was analysed for its seismic facies association, and in the central study area mound, oblique, channel, reflection-free, shingled, hummocky, broken and parallel associations occurred. The rims of the association shows mound, oblique, hummocky and minor parallel seismic facies. Stratigraphic control was available from 32 coring sites. In the central study area, unit 3 represents rhythmic layers of silt with fine sand and clay in an overall fining-upward 3 to 5-m-thick sequence. At the rim of the basin, the unit comprises fine sand, silt and rhythmic layers of silt with clay and fine sand. Unit 3 is proposed as having formed during the transgression of a lake, partly in contact with the Baltic Ice Lake, some time between 10.8–10.0 ¹⁴C ka BP. After 10.0 ¹⁴C ka BP the water body stagnated when contact with the Baltic Basin was cut off. Analysis of base level of the subunits implies tectonic activity resulting in subsidence of the central study area which could possibly have influenced the transgressive development.     

城市功能与区域创新耦合协调的空间联系研究——以长江经济带107个城市为实证

利用区位熵、耦合协调模型、趋势面分析、引力模型等对长江经济带城市功能与区域创新耦合协调度进行了测算,并对其空间联系进行了分析。得到了以下结论：2004~2014年,各个城市单元整体的耦合协调度均有一定程度的提升,逐渐形成三大连绵较高协调集聚区,长江经济带总体耦合协调度呈现出“下游高-中上游低”的空间趋势;空间联系的最大引力线联结格局比较稳定,长三角城市群是耦合协调发展的重要基地和优势集聚区;长江下游地区空间联系的网络密度与网络结构的复杂程度远高于长江中上游地区,并且逐渐形成由以长三角为核心城市圈,牵引长江中上游城市多极化发展的网络结构。     

Chinese Narratives on “One Belt,One Road” (一带一路) in Geopolitical and Imperial Contexts

This article reviews Chinese-language writings on the ideas of a Silk Road Economic Belt and Maritime Silk Road that have proliferated in the last few years, now under the aegis of and visualized as One Belt, One Road (一带一路). We examine how these narratives articulate with geopolitical and strategic ones in China before exploring the history of the idea of Silk Road(s). An excavation of their origins in nineteenth-century German imperial geography leads us to reflect on the past and present relations between states, empires, and geopolitics and to begin to chart the range of responses to One Belt, One Road.