The progressive intensification of northern hemisphere glaciation as seen from the North Pacific

Ocean Drilling Project (ODP) site 882 (50°22′N, 167°36′E) provides the first high-resolution GRAPE density, magnetic susceptibility, carbonate, opal and foraminifera (planktonic and benthic) stable isotopes records between 3.2 and 2.4 Ma in the Northwest Pacific. We observed a dramatic increase in ice rafting debris at site 882 at 2.75 Ma, which is coeval with that found in the Norwegian Sea, suggesting that the Eurasian Arctic and Northeast Asia were significantly glaciated from 2.75 Ma onwards. Prior to 2.75 Ma planktonic foraminifera δ¹⁸O records indicate a warming or freshening trend of 4°C or 2‰ over 80 ka. If this is interpreted as a warm pre-glacial Pliocene North Pacific, it may have provided the additional moisture required to initially build up the northern hemisphere continental ice sheet. The dramatic drop in sea surface temperatures (SST>7.5°C) at 2.75 Ma ended this suggested period of enhanced SST and thus the proposed moisture pump. Moreover, at 2.79 and 2.73 Ma opal mass accumulation rates (MAR) decrease in two steps by five fold and is accompanied by a more gradual long-term decrease in CaCO₃ MARs. Evidence from the Southern Ocean (ODP site 704) indicates that just prior to 2.6 Ma there is a massive increase in opal MARs, the opposite to what is found in the North Pacific. This indicates that the intensification of northern hemisphere glaciation was accompanied by a major reorganisation of global oceanic chemical budget, possibly caused by changes in deep ocean circulation. The initiation of northern hemisphere glaciation occurred in the late Miocene with a significant build up of ice on southern Greenland. However, the progressive intensification did not occur until 3.5–3 Ma when the Greenland ice sheet expanded to include northern Greenland. Following this stage we suggest that the Eurasian Arctic and Northeast Asia glaciated at 2.75 Ma, approximately 100 ka before the glaciation of Alaska (2.65 Ma) and 200 ka before the glaciation of the North East American continent (2.54 Ma).     

Fluid infiltration associated with seismic faulting: Examining chemical and mineralogical compositions of fault rocks from the active Chelungpu fault

In order to understand the fault zone architecture and mechanisms that caused the Chi-Chi earthquake, the Chelungpu drilling project was conducted during April 2000 through a collaborative project between Japan and Taiwan. In this study, chemical and mineralogical variations within the overall Chelungpu fault zone, including variations between less damaged host rocks, damaged zones, and fault cores caused by the Chi-Chi earthquake were examined. Slopes of TiO₂ immobile isocons were consistently > 1 for analyses comparing host rocks with rocks from damaged zones or with gouges from fault cores, indicating that volume loss occurred in damaged zones and the fault cores. These results strongly imply that pervasive fluid infiltration occurred within the fault zone. Volume loss within the damaged zone and fault core is interpreted to result from a two-stage process involving: (i) coseismic mechanical wearing and/or dissolution in the fault core, and (ii) fluid infiltration within the fault zone during postseismic and interseismic periods along cracks caused by seismic failure. Semi-quantitative XRD analysis indicates that the kaolinite content consistently increases from the less damaged host rocks to the damaged zone and gouges in each fault core. Mineralogic changes indicate that pervasive acidic fluid infiltration occurred within the fault zones and reacted with the feldspars or muscovite to form kaolinite. Enrichment of kaolinite and illite found in the fault zones of southern drilling site could play some role on the slipping behavior of the southern part of the Chelungpu fault. Greater volume loss in the fault core may have resulted from moderate permeability, combined with the very fine grain nature of pulverized material in the fault core, which enhanced chemical reactions including transformation of feldspars and muscovite to clay minerals. The study results indicate that pervasive fluid infiltration occurred and changed the mineralogical and chemical architecture of fault zones caused by the cyclic earthquakes.     

中国大陆科学钻探工程主孔石榴石单辉橄榄岩的岩石化学研究

中国大陆科学钻探工程主孔石榴石橄榄岩产出于603.20～683.53m之间,主要为石榴石单辉橄榄岩,内部还见有巨晶状角闪石岩(曾经是岩脉)和榴辉岩与橄榄岩之间厘米级的方辉辉石岩.石榴石橄榄岩多数含有钛斜硅镁石.从其内部所夹的榴辉岩条带可知,橄榄岩发生过褶皱等构造变形作用.其围岩和内部夹层榴辉岩中的锆石中舍柯石英的事实可能表明岩体经历过超高压变质作用.石榴石橄榄岩的主要造岩矿物橄榄石的Fo端员低(0.82～0.86)、全岩岩石化学的低Mg#值(77.26～85.07)和高易熔元素以及低于典型阿尔卑斯型橄榄岩的(Mg Ni)/(Fe Mn)比值,意味着该石榴石橄榄岩体的原岩为岩浆固结成因.石榴石橄榄岩的稀土元素总量低,配分型式有LREE富集型((La/Lu)N比值为9～16.6)、LREE适度富集型((La/Lu)N比值为1.47～8.22)和LREE亏损型或平坦型((La/Lu)N比值为0.62、1.19～1.92)三种,并构成从亏损或平坦型到富集型的韵律,反映了结晶分异的特点.微量元素蛛网图上,石榴单辉橄榄岩微量元素的丰度总体上低于N-MOBB的丰度.Cu、Ni和MgO的判别图表明,石榴石橄榄岩的原岩岩浆的固结成岩时期主要为镁铁质矿物的分离结晶作用而硫化物不是重要的矿物相.Ti和P的剧烈变化表明了有磁铁矿和磷灰石的堆积作用.微量元素判别图表明岩体受到了明显的地壳物质混染作用.铂族元素丰度总量低,其丰度分布型式图表明原岩岩浆的部分熔融程度高,而且元素的判别图表明岩浆具有S不饱和特点.硫化物残留在地幔中而使得岩浆中PGE相对Cu、Ni亏损,在Ni-PGE-Cu图上呈总体上的凹形分布.同属PPGE的Pt比Pd所显示的更高的相容性也表明了岩浆中S的不饱和特点.而Ir的负异常可能说明原始岩浆在侵入前的分离结晶作用其间发生了Ir的结晶析出,或者是在地幔部分熔融时Ir残留在地幔残留体中.因此,主孔石榴石橄榄岩的原始岩浆是上地幔适当部分熔融程度的产物((Pd/Ir)N≥1),可能在源区有硫化物的残余而造成了PGE相对Cu、Ni亏损而在Ni-PGE-Cu图上呈总体上的凹形分布.后S不饱和的岩浆经历分离结晶作用而造成了Pt相时于Pd亏损的特点.     

Nd、Sr同位素组成对中国大陆科学钻探工程主孔0～2000米片麻岩原岩成因的制约

中国大陆科学钻探工程主孔0～2000岩芯段的片麻岩包括二长花岗质片麻岩和斜长片麻岩两类,其中的Sr同位素组成与元素Rb的丰度关系显示原岩侵位后发生过强烈的Rb加入事件,说明Rb-Sr同位素体系在超高压变质和随后的退变质作用过程中受到了明显的扰动.相反,Sm-Nd同位素体系尚保持着封闭状态,可有效地示踪原岩的成因.二长花岗片麻岩的εNd(t)值较低,变化范围也不大(-8.2～-13.0),它们的Nd同位素模式年龄(TDM)主要介于2.25到2.54 Ga之间,远大于其原岩的实际侵位年龄,指示其原岩可能是由古元古代的地壳物质在新元古代部分熔融形成的.而斜长片麻岩的εNd(t)值变化范围广,从 1.3到-9.4.其中采自大套斜长片麻岩段的样品其εNd(t)值从-3.0到-9.4,它们的Nd同位素模式年龄介于2.1～2.4 Ga,与二长花岗片麻岩的TDM值类似,该类岩石的地球化学特征总体类似于扬子地台北缘新元古代双峰式火山岩的酸性端元,指示它们的原岩可能是在新元古代由地幔来源的玄武岩浆上升到地壳层位,引起成分不均一的古元古代地壳物质发生部分熔融形成的,其中可能混入了少量地幔来源的物质.而采自变镁铁质岩“夹层“中的斜长片麻岩显示出接近球粒陨石的Nd同位素特征(εNd(t)= 1.3～-2.6),类似或略低于邻近的榴辉岩和斜长角闪岩围岩的Nd同位素组成及大别山-苏鲁造山带内大多数榴辉岩的Nd同位素组成,指示它们与这些变镁铁质岩之间可能有成因联系.它们的Nd同位素模式年龄(TDM=1.28-1.60 Ga)虽然早于其原岩的侵位年龄,但明显小于花岗片麻岩及大套斜长片麻岩的TDM值.我们倾向于认为这些“薄层“状的斜长片麻岩的原岩是由玄武岩浆派生的,伴有一定程度的地壳混染.     

云南泸西县云鹏水电站坝基基础工程处理

大坝基础帷幕灌浆工程中采用新技术、新工艺，使工程质量大幅提高，也使这些新技也能在实践中得到发展和完善，为工程良好的质量和效益打下了坚实的基础。     

Risk-based environmental decision-making using fuzzy analytic hierarchy process (F-AHP)

Environmental risk management is an integral part of risk analyses. The selection of different mitigating or preventive alternatives often involve competing and conflicting criteria, which requires sophisticated multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) methods. Analytic hierarchy process (AHP) is one of the most commonly used MCDM methods, which integrates subjective and personal preferences in performing analyses. AHP works on a premise that decision-making of complex problems can be handled by structuring the complex problem into a simple and comprehensible hierarchical structure. However, AHP involves human subjectivity, which introduces vagueness type uncertainty and necessitates the use of decision-making under uncertainty. In this paper, vagueness type uncertainty is considered using fuzzy-based techniques. The traditional AHP is modified to fuzzy AHP using fuzzy arithmetic operations. The concept of risk attitude and associated confidence of a decision maker on the estimates of pairwise comparisons are also discussed. The methodology of the proposed technique is built on a hypothetical example and its efficacy is demonstrated through an application dealing with the selection of drilling fluid/mud for offshore oil and gas operations.     

New evidence for age variation and scale effects of permeabilities of young oceanic crust from borehole thermal and pressure measurements

In 1996, long-term sealed-hole hydrological observatories with subseafloor temperature and pressure sensors were installed in four cased holes drilled by the Ocean Drilling Program into sedimented young oceanic crust east of the Juan de Fuca Ridge. Data recovered over a year later showed that all four holes displayed temperature profiles indicative of vertical fluid flow immediately prior to their being sealed. Warm water was being produced from basement in two cases, and cool ocean bottom water was being drawn into basement at the others. Linear flow rates of 60–200 m/h were estimated from the perturbation of the temperature profiles relative to undisturbed geothermal gradients at the sites. The pressure differentials driving the flow were also measured at the time of the observatory installations, allowing estimates of permeabilities of the upper crustal sections penetrated by the holes. Estimated permeabilities vary systematically with age, ranging from about 10⁻¹⁰ m² in the youngest site (0.9 Ma) to 10⁻¹² m² in the oldest site (3.6 Ma), confirming an apparent reduction of permeability with age determined with packer experiments at three of the same sites. Combined with other estimates of permeabilities in the same holes using methods with different scales of investigation, the new permeability estimates also provide evidence for a significant scale dependence of permeability in the upper oceanic crust.     

The closing of a seaway: ocean water masses and global climate change

The Late Neogene witnessed various major paleoceanographic changes that culminated in intense Northern Hemisphere Glaciation (NHG). The cause and effects of these changes are still debated. We use a multiproxy approach to determine the relative timing of the closure of the Panama gateway, changes in Atlantic circulation, global cooling and ice sheet growth. Benthic foraminiferal Mg/Ca records from a Pacific and an Atlantic Site have been produced and are interpreted in terms of bottom water temperatures. These Mg-temperature records are combined with published benthic δ¹³C, δ¹⁸O and erosion records to reconstruct the flow of proto-North Atlantic Deep Water (proto-NADW) over the past 12 Ma. The results suggest that between 12.5 and 10.5 Ma, and again between about 8.5 and 6 Ma, a nutrient-depleted water mass that was colder (by 1–2°C) and fresher than the intervening deep water mass filled the Atlantic basin. This proto-NADW became warmer (by 1°C) and saltier between 6 and 5 Ma, coincident with the restriction of surface water flow through the Central American Seaway. The Mg-temperature records define a subsequent global cooling trend of 3.5°C between 5 Ma and today. Early NHG in the late Miocene was perhaps related to the formation of the relatively cold, fresh proto-NADW. The formation of the warmer and saltier proto-NADW in the early Pliocene may have initially limited Northern Hemisphere ice growth. However, the increased moisture released at high northern latitudes associated with formation of ‘warm’ proto-NADW, coupled with the global temperature decrease of deep (and hence polar surface) waters, likely helped initiate the intense NHG of the Plio–Pleistocene.     

塔里木盆地中部志留-泥盆系沉积构造背景

我国陆上最深的钻井塔参1井位于塔里木盆地中央隆起,井深7200m,在井深3742～4001m钻遇志留泥盆系碎屑岩259m,包括下志留统125m,上泥盆统134m。在该段岩心采样23块(下志留统15块,上泥盆统8块),其全岩和微量元素地球化学分析表明,塔参1井的志留泥盆系碎屑岩均为稳定大陆克拉通内部的沉积,物源可能来自其底部以前震旦纪花岗岩为代表的古老陆壳基底。     

Fracture-zone conditions on a recently active fault: insights from mineralogical and geochemical analyses of the Hirabayashi NIED drill core on the Nojima fault, southwest Japan, which ruptured in the 1995 Kobe earthquake

An 1800-m-deep borehole into the Nojima fault zone was drilled at Nojima-Hirabayashi, Japan, after the 1995 Hyogo-ken Nanbu (Kobe) earthquake. Three possible fracture zones were detected at depths of about 1140, 1300, and 1800 m. To assess these fracture zones in this recently active fault, we analyzed the distributions of fault rocks, minerals, and chemical elements in these zones. The central fault plane in the shallowest fracture zone was identified by foliated blue-gray gouge at a depth of 1140 m. The degree of fracturing was evidently greater in the hanging wall than in the footwall. Minerals detected in this zone were quartz, orthoclase, plagioclase, and biotite, as in the parent rock (granodiorite), and also kaolinite, smectite, laumontite, stilbite, calcite, ankerite, and siderite, which are related to hydrothermal alteration. Biotite was absent in both the hanging wall and footwall across the central fault plane, but it was absent over a greater distance from the central fault plane in the hanging wall than in the footwall. Major element compositions across this zone suggested that hydrothermal alteration minerals such as kaolinite and smectite occurred across the central fault plane for a greater distance in the hanging wall than in the footwall. Similarly, H₂O+ and CO₂ had higher concentrations in the hanging wall than in the footwall. This asymmetrical distribution pattern is probably due to the greater degree of wall–rock fracturing and associated alteration in the hanging wall. We attributed the characteristics of this zone to fault activity and fluid–rock interactions. We analyzed the other fracture zones along this fault in the same way. In the fracture zone at about 1300 m depth, we detected the same kinds of hydrothermal alteration minerals as in the shallower zone, but they were in fewer samples. We detected relatively little H₂O+ and CO₂, and little evidence for movement of the major chemical elements, indicating little past fluid–rock interaction. In the fracture zone at about 1800 m depth, H₂O+ and CO₂ were very enriched throughout the interval, as in the fracture zone at about 1140 m depth. However, smectite was absent and chlorite was present, indicating the occurrence of chloritization, which requires a temperature of more than 200 °C. Only smectite can form under the present conditions in these fracture zones. The chloritization probably occurred in the past when the fracture zone was deeper than it is now. These observations suggest that among the three fracture zones, that at about 1140 m depth was the most activated at the time of the 1995 Hyogo-ken Nanbu (Kobe) earthquake.