Application of Greek lignite as an additive for controlling rheological and filtration properties of water–bentonite suspensions at high temperatures: A review

This review paper presents the results of an extensive study investigating whether addition of 3% w/w Greek lignite to 6.42% w/w water–bentonite suspensions, after being exposed to high temperatures, can prevent gelation and control filtration characteristics. Two different bentonites and eight lignites from different Greek basins have been used while a commercial lignite product has been used as standard. The lignite-free bentonite suspensions heated to 177 °C for 16 h (thermal aging) thicken considerably, increasing the yield stress and the yield point. Fluid consistency and flow behavior indices also change while no significant change is observed for plastic viscosity. Thermal aging of the suspensions results in unacceptably high fluid loss values.Addition of Greek lignite to water–bentonite suspensions, followed by thermal aging, provided the rheological stability of the suspensions by maintaining the low yield stress/point regardless of the type of bentonite. Some of the lignites performed as well as their commercial counterpart. No specific trends for rheological improvement have been identified with respect to various characteristics of lignites such as contents of humic, fulvic acids, humins and other parameters such as specific surface area and cation exchange capacity.Furthermore, addition of lignite in most cases provided very good filtration control of the water–bentonite suspensions after exposure to 177 °C, with some Greek lignites being superior to the commercial product. The same lignite parameters examined for rheological control, were also examined to determine their effect on fluid loss of these suspensions for both bentonites. The content of humic and fulvic acids of two groups of lignites showed weak inverse correlations with the fluid loss volumes for both bentonites, while all other parameters did not seem to directly correlate with the effectiveness of the lignites.     

CO_2 Density-Raman Shift Relation Derived from Synthetic Inclusions in Fused Silica Capillaries and Its Application

Abstract: The densities of CO2 inclusions in minerals are commonly used to determine the crystallizing conditions of the host minerals. However, conventional microthermometry is difficult to apply for inclusions of small size (< 5–10 μm) or low density. Raman analysis is an alternative method for determining CO2 density, provided that the CO2 density–Raman shift relation is known. This study aims to establish this CO2 density–Raman shift relation by using CO2 inclusions synthesized in fused silica capillaries. By using this newly-developed synthetic technique, we formed pure CO2 inclusions, and their densities were determined by microthermometry. The Raman analysis showed that the relation between CO2 density (D in g/cm3) and the separations (Δ in cm?1) between the two main bands (i.e. Fermi diad bands) in CO2 Raman spectra can be represented by a cubic equation: D (g/cm3)=0.74203(?0.019Δ3+5.90332Δ2?610.79472Δ+21050.30165)?3.54278 (r2=0.99920). Our calculated D value for a given Δ is between those obtained from two previously-reported equations, which were derived from different experimental methods. An example was given in this study to demonstrate that the densities of natural CO2 inclusions that could not be derived from microthermometry could be determined by using our method.     

Mantle structure and rifting processes in the Baikal–Mongolia region: geophysical data and evidence from xenoliths in volcanic rocks

The origin of the Baikal rift zone (BRZ) has been debated between the advocates of passive and active rifting since the 1970s. A re-assessment of the relevant geological and geophysical data from Russian and international literature questions the concept of broad asthenospheric upwelling beneath the rift zone that has been the cornerstone of many “active rifting” models. Results of a large number of early and recent studies favour the role of far-field forces in the opening and development of the BRZ. This study emphasises the data obtained through studies of peridotite and pyroxenite xenoliths brought to the surface by alkali basaltic magmas in southern Siberia and central Mongolia. These xenoliths are direct samples of the upper mantle in the vicinity of the BRZ. Of particular importance are suites of garnet-bearing xenoliths that have been used to construct P–T- composition lithospheric cross-sections in the region for the depth range of 35–80 km.Xenolith studies have shown fundamental differences in the composition and thermal regime between the lithospheric mantle beneath the ancient Siberian platform (sampled by kimberlites) and beneath younger mobile belts south of the platform. The uppermost mantle in southern Siberia and central Mongolia is much hotter at similar levels than the mantle in the Siberian craton and also has significantly higher contents of ‘basaltic’ major elements (Ca, Al, Na) and iron, higher Fe/Si and Fe/Mg. The combination of the moderately high geothermal gradient and the fertile compositions in the off-cratonic mantle appears to be a determining factor controlling differences in sub-Moho seismic velocities relative to the Siberian craton. Chemical and isotopic compositions of the off-cratonic xenoliths indicate small-scale and regional mantle heterogeneities attributed to various partial melting and enrichment events, consistent with long-term evolution in the lithospheric mantle. Age estimates of mantle events based on Os–Sr–Nd isotopic data can be correlated with major regional stages of crustal formation and may indicate long-term crust–mantle coupling. The ratios of ^143/144Nd in many LREE-depleted xenoliths are higher than those in MORB or OIB source regions and are not consistent with a recent origin from asthenospheric mantle.Mantle xenoliths nearest to the rift basins (30–50 km south of southern Lake Baikal) show no unequivocal evidence for strong heating, unusual stress and deformation, solid state flow, magmatic activity or partial melting that could be indicative of an asthenospheric intrusion right below the Moho. Comparisons between xenoliths from older and younger volcanic rocks east of Lake Baikal, together with observations on phase transformations and mineral zoning in individual xenoliths, have indicated recent heating in portions of the lithospheric mantle that may be related to localised magmatic activity or small-scale ascent of deep mantle material. Overall, the petrographic, P–T, chemical and isotopic constraints from mantle xenoliths appear to be consistent with recent geophysical studies, which found no evidence for a large-scale asthenospheric upwarp beneath the rift, and lend support to passive rifting mechanism for the BRZ.     

Origin of Gold—Bearing Fluid and Its Initiative Localization Mechanism in Xiadian Gold Deposit,Shandong Province

The composition of quartz inclusions and trace elements in ore indicate that gold-bearing fluid in the Xiadian gold deposit,Shandong Province,stemmed from both mantle and magma,belonging to a composite origin.Based on theoretical analysis and high temperature and high pressure experimental studies,gold-bearing fluid initiative localization mechanism and the forming environment of ore-host rocks are discussed in the present paper.The composite fluid extracted gold from rocks because of its expanding and injecting forces and injecting forces and flew through ore-conducive structures,leading to the breakup of rocks.The generation of ore-host faults and the precipitation of gold-bearing fluid occurred almost simultaneously.This study provides fur-ther information about the relationships between gold ore veins and basic-ultrabasic vein rocks and intermediate vein rocks,the spatial distribution of gold ore veins and the rules governing the migration of ore fluids.     

Geology and Genesis of the Ta'ergou Skarn - Quartz Vein Tungsten Deposit in the North Qilian Caledonian Orogenic Belt, Northwest China

Abstract. The Ta'ergou tungsten deposit in Gansu province, northwestern China, is located in the western part of the North Qilian Caledonian orogen, and consists of scheelite skarn bodies and wolframite quartz veins. The tungsten‐bearing skarn developed by the replacement of carbonate layers intercalated in the Precambrian schist and amphibolite whereas wolframite‐quartz ore veins developed along a group of fractures that cut through horizontal skarns. The Ta'ergou tungsten deposit is genetically related to the Caledonian Yeniutan granodiorite intrusion and occurs ca. 500 m wide in the exo‐contact zone 300 ～ 500 m apart from the intrusion. The granodiorite displays a lower grade of differentiation, low content of SiO₂ and high contents of mafic components. There are three types of fluid inclusions in the wolframite‐quartz vein systems, i. e. aqueous, CO₂‐H₂O and CO₂‐rich. The homogenization temperature of aqueous inclusion ranges from 140 to 380d?C and their salinities from 6.4 to 17.4 equivalent wt% NaCl. Laser Raman spectroscopy shows that the inclusions contain a relatively high content of CO₂. The δ³⁴S values of skarn type sulfides range from +8.1 to +12.7 per mil and those of quartz vein sulfides from +9.3 to +14.9 per mil, similar to sulfides of the granodiorite with from +6.0 to +11.7 per mil. The δ¹⁸O values of quartz are between +10.5 and +13.3 per mil and those of wolframite between +3.4 and +5.1 per mil. The δ¹⁸O water values of ore forming fluids range from +0.6 to +6.4 per mil and suggest the mixture of magmatic fluids with meteoric water formed the ore‐forming fluids. It has been proved that Precambrian strata in the west sector of North Qilian region are enriched in tungsten. We propose the strata were remelted to be tungsten‐granitoid during subduction. The polymetallic tungsten was gradually accumulated into the roof pendants of the granite intrusion by fractional crystallization and then was deposited by hydrothermal fluids during metasomatism and infilling along fractures. On the other hand, the granite intrusion also acted as “heating machine” to make hydrothermal fluids leach out the metals from Precambrian strata and these metals joined the ore‐forming hydrothermal system.     

新疆东准双泉地区与韧-脆性剪切带有关的金矿成矿

[摘要]区域成矿背景分析表明,东准噶尔卡拉麦里地区韧-脆性剪切带形成于陆-陆碰撞体制, 在330 ~265Ma 期间,受挤压伸展体制转换影响,先后经历了韧、脆性构造变形。对与韧-脆性剪切带有 关的金矿石英流体包裹体研究发现,包裹体以气液相为主,均一温度集中在160 ~ 240益,成矿流体盐度 为3. 55 ~4. 5wt%NaCl。成矿流体的氢、氧同位素组成表明成矿流体的水为变质成因水。金属硫化物硫 同位素啄34 S 值为3. 54 ~10. 68译,显然属于混染硫。黄铁矿包裹体氦氩同位素3 He/ 4 He 值为0. 18 ~2. 18 Ra,属幔壳混源。成矿年代学研究表明,双泉金矿成矿时代及控矿构造脆性变形时间为(269依9) Ma ~ (260依4)Ma,金初始富集时间在310Ma 前后,并得到含矿花岗斑岩U-Pb 同位素年龄的支持,该事件在 东准地区均有同位素年龄记录,是区域性的构造岩浆成矿流体热事件。上述资料表明,金矿成矿过程、 成矿流体性质等在时间、空间上严格受韧-脆性剪切构造变形带控制。     

胶东英格庄金矿床地质地球化学特征

英格庄金矿床是胶东牟平-乳山金矿成矿带重要的石英脉型金矿床之一,其产出和分布严格受NNE向断裂控制,围岩以古老变质岩和昆嵛山花岗岩为主,金矿物主要以晶隙金形式赋存于黄铁矿-脉石晶体之间。通过成矿流体包裹体地球化学研究可知:均一温度变化有3个峰值(155℃～165℃、205℃～215℃和245℃～265℃);该矿床包裹体盐度w(NaCl)较低(17.17(),在1.05(～17.17(之间变化,应属于低盐度流体;据其成矿压力21.3～58.8MPa,进一步求得的该矿床主要成矿深度为0.83～2.31km,为中浅成矿床;依据包裹体成分测试结果可知,矿床流体属K+-Na+-SO24-Cl-型。氢氧同位素显示其成矿流体主要来源于岩浆水和变质水,并有一定的大气降水混入。     

Fluid fluxes during low-temperature alteration: implications of multi-style alteration assemblages from the Welsh Borderland,UK

Localized (domainal) low-temperature alteration may indicate variations in the chemistry of alteration fluids and/or discrete fluid flow paths during metamorphism. Occurrences of epidote- and pumpellyite-dominated domains are often used as evidence for large fluxes of Ca-rich fluids. However, comparative studies of two domainal alteration styles from basaltic to andesitic lavas and volcaniclastic rocks at Builth Wells, Wales, UK suggest that such interpretations cannot be applied universally. Here, only one set of domains can be attributed to large fluxes of Ca-rich fluids. In contrast, the second set of domains formed where the host rock supplied the necessary Ca, and fluid/rock ratios were relatively low. These domains are hosted by rocks which show a Caledonian regional metamorphic imprint, characterized by the alteration assemblage albite+chlorite+titanite±prehnite±pumpellyite±calcite±muscovite±quartz (considered to have formed at c. 200°C and ≤2.5 kbar). Type 1 domains lie along fluid channelways, such as veins. Pumpellyite is the dominant secondary mineral, but the alteration assemblage is variable with pumpellyite±prehnite±calcite±titanite±chlorite (±quartz). The domains formed at temperatures of 130–230°C during Ordovician hydrothermal activity, before the peak of regional metamorphism. In contrast, Type 2 domains are not associated with obvious fluid channelways. A central prehnite-dominated zone typically has a rim with the assemblage pumpellyite+calcite±prehnite±chlorite±titanite±K-rich phyllosilicate. These domains probably formed from pelitic xenoliths which contained a volcaniclastic component at temperatures of 130–230°C and at relatively low fluid/rock ratios. However, the timing of domain formation is uncertain. Pyrobitumen, in veins and disseminated throughout the rock, may have influenced the formation of both types of domain by stabilizing pumpellyite in preference to epidote and causing metamorphic calcite formation through the release of CO₂ to the alteration fluids. © 1996 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Genesis of Kanggur Gold Deposit in Eastern Tianshan Orogenic Belt, NW China: Fluid Inclusion and Oxygen and Hydrogen Isotope Constraints

Abstract. Primary fluid inclusions in quartz and carbonates from the Kanggur gold deposit are dominated by aqueous inclusions, with subsidiary CO₂-H₂O inclusions that have a constant range in CO₂ content (10–20 vol %). Microthermometric results indicate that total homogenization temperatures have a wide but similar range for both aqueous inclusions (120 to 310C) and CO₂-H₂O inclusions (140 to 340C). Estimates of fluid salinity for CO₂-H₂O inclusions are quite restricted (5.9∼10.3 equiv. wt% NaCl), whereas aqueous inclusions show much wider salinity ranging from 2.2 to 15.6 equivalent wt %NaCl.
The 6D values of fluid inclusions in carbonates vary from -45 to -61 %, in well accord with the published δD values of fluid inclusions in quartz (-46 to -66 %). Most of the δ¹⁸O and δD values of the ore-forming fluids can be achieved by exchanged meteoric water after isotopic equilibration with wall rock by fluid/rock interaction at a low water/rock ratio. However, the exchanged meteoric water alone cannot explain the full range of δ¹⁸O and δD values, magmatic and/or meta-morphic water should also be involved. The wide salinity in aqueous inclusions may also result from mixing of meteoric water and magmatic and/or metamorphic water.     

烃源岩—流体相互作用模拟实验研究

为了探讨烃源岩与孔隙流体之间相互作用过程和机理以及有机酸的生成及其影响因素,我们开展了烃源岩-流体相互作用模拟实验研究。实验结果表明：Ⅱ型干酪根形成有机酸的能力大于Ⅰ型干酪根,水的矿化度对有机酸的形成影响甚微,随着温度升高,流体中有机酸的含量也随之增大。pH值对有机酸形成的影响非常明显,中性和碱性条件更有利于生成有机酸。其中乙酸的形成有利于碳酸盐矿物的溶解,而草酸的形成不利于碳酸盐的溶解。温度对烃源岩的影响与烃源岩的矿物组成有很大的关系,对于富碳酸盐烃源岩,Ca、Mg、Na三元素在水中的溶解量,与温度呈反相关的关系,对于贫碳酸盐烃源岩,与反应温度之间则呈现出正相关的关系。而无论碳酸盐含量高低,Si在溶液中的含量都会随着温度的升高而增大。酸性溶液对烃源岩的溶解能力最强,无论原始反应溶液的酸碱性,反应结果都最终趋于弱碱性。流体的含盐量对烃源岩中Mg的溶解影响差异较大,低盐度的流体有利于Mg溶解。